In our leadership program, we have studied a number of theories. C

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GROUP DYNAMICS FOR TEAMS

6th Edition

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For my parents, who still have no idea what I

studied in graduate school. I hope this helps to

finally explain things.

And to my wife, Bethany, and children Emelyn and

William for the endless interruptions. You

redirected me toward what matters most.

—David

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GROUP DYNAMICS FOR TEAMS

6th Edition

Daniel Levi

California Polytechnic State University, San

Luis Obispo

David A. Askay

California Polytechnic State University, San

Luis Obispo

Los Angeles

London

New Delhi

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Singapore

Washington DC

Melbourne

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Copyright © 2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Levi, Daniel (Psychologist), author. | Askay, David Andrew, author.

Title: Group dynamics for teams / Daniel Levi, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, David A. Askay,

California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo.

Description: 6th edition. | Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020017283 | ISBN 9781544309699 (paperback) | ISBN 9781544309675 (epub) | ISBN 9781544309682 (epub) | ISBN

9781544309705 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Teams in the workplace.

Classification: LCC HD66 .L468 2021 | DDC 658.4/022—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020017283

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Acquisitions Editor: Lara Parra

Production Editor: Veronica Stapleton Hooper

Copy Editor: Jared Leighton

Typesetter: Hurix Digital

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Proofreader: Gretchen Treadwell

Indexer: Integra

Cover Designer: Candice Harman

Marketing Manager: Katherine Hepburn

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BRIEF CONTENTS

New to This Edition Acknowledgments About the Authors Introduction Part I Characteristics of Teams

Chapter 1 Understanding Teams Chapter 2 Defining Team Success

Part II Processes of Teamwork Chapter 3 Team Beginnings Chapter 4 Understanding the Basic Team Processes Chapter 5 Cooperation and Competition Chapter 6 Communication

Part III Issues Teams Face Chapter 7 Managing Conflict Chapter 8 Social Influence and Power Chapter 9 Decision Making Chapter 10 Leadership and Followership Chapter 11 Problem Solving Chapter 12 Creativity, Innovation, and Design Thinking Chapter 13 Diversity and Inclusion

Part IV Organizational Context of Teams Chapter 14 Team, Organizational, and International Culture Chapter 15 Virtuality and Teamwork Chapter 16 Evaluating and Rewarding Team Performance Chapter 17 Team Development Interventions

Appendix: Guide to Student Team Projects References Index

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DETAILED CONTENTS

New to This Edition Acknowledgments About the Authors Introduction Part I Characteristics of Teams

Chapter 1 Understanding Teams Learning Objectives 1.1 Why Groups and Teams Matter 1.2 Defining Groups 1.3 Defining Teams 1.4 Why Organizations Use Teams

Organizational Characteristics Job Characteristics

1.5 Purposes and Types of Teams How Organizations Use Teams Classifying Teams

1.6 History of Teams and Group Dynamics Foundations of Teamwork Foundations of Group Dynamics

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 1 Survey: Attitudes Toward Teamwork Activity: Working in Teams

Chapter 2 Defining Team Success Learning Objectives 2.1 Nature of Team Success

Completing the Task Developing Social Relations Benefiting the Individual

2.2 Conditions for Team Success Team Composition Characteristics of the Task Teamwork Processes Organizational Context

2.3 Characteristics of Successful Teams

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Team Structures Collective Intelligence Teaming Mindset

2.4 Positive-Psychology View of Team Success 2.5 Using Teams in the Workplace

Benefits of Teamwork Problems of Teamwork When the Use of Teams Becomes a Fad

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 2 Activity: Understanding Team Success

Part II Processes of Teamwork Chapter 3 Team Beginnings

Learning Objectives 3.1 Stages of Group Development

Group Development Perspective Project Development Perspective Cyclical Perspective Implications of Team Development Stages

3.2 Group Socialization Team Turnover

3.3 Team Goals Value and Characteristics of Goals Goals Gone Wild Hidden Agendas

3.4 Team Norms How Norms Are Formed Impact of Team Norms

3.5 Application: Jump-Starting Project Teams Building Social Relations Clarifying Roles and Responsibilities Team Charter Developing Virtual Teams

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 3 Activity: Observing Team Development Activity: Developing a Team Charter

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Chapter 4 Understanding the Basic Team Processes Learning Objectives 4.1 Motivation

Social Loafing Increasing Team Motivation

4.2 Group Cohesion How Cohesion Affects the Team’s Performance Building Group Cohesion

4.3 Team Roles Role Stress Types of Team Meeting Roles

4.4 Task and Social Behaviors Value of Social Behaviors

4.5 Team Adaptation and Learning Team Mental Models Transactive Memory Systems Reflexivity and Team Debriefing Using Feedback Group Process Observations

4.6 Basic Team Processes in Virtual Teams Summary Team Leadership Challenge 4 Activity: Tracking Teamwork Behaviors

Chapter 5 Cooperation and Competition Learning Objectives 5.1 Teamwork as a Mixed-Motive Situation 5.2 Why Are People in Teams Competitive?

Culture Personality Organizational Rewards

5.3 Problems With Competition Competition Erodes Trust Competition Reduces Learning Intergroup Competition When Is Competition Appropriate?

5.4 Benefits of and Problems With Cooperation Benefits of Cooperation

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Problems With Cooperation Competitive Versus Cooperative Rewards

5.5 Application: Encouraging Cooperation Common Goals Rebuilding Trust and Communication Encouraging Altruistic Norms Negotiating Cooperation

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 5 Survey: Cooperative, Competitive, or Individualistic Orientation Activity: Understanding Competitive Versus Cooperative Goals

Chapter 6 Communication Learning Objectives 6.1 The Communication Process

Verbal Communication Nonverbal Communication Communication Within Teams

6.2 Flow of a Team’s Communication Dysfunctional Information Processing Within the Team Gender and Communication Repairing Trust Psychological Safety Communication Climates

6.3 Emotional Intelligence 6.4 Facilitating Team Meetings 6.5 Communication Skills for Team Meetings Summary Team Leadership Challenge 6 Survey: Team Emotional Intelligence Activity: Observing Communication Patterns in a Team

Part III Issues Teams Face Chapter 7 Managing Conflict

Learning Objectives

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7.1 Conflict Is Normal 7.2 Sources of Conflict 7.3 Types of Conflict

Task Conflict Process Conflict Relational Conflict

7.4 Conflict Management Two Dimensions of Conflict Comparing Different Conflict Management Styles Aligning Conflict Type With Conflict Management Styles Fostering Collaboration Through Open-Minded Discussions Negotiated Agreements Conflict in Virtual Teams

7.5 Preventing and Preparing for Team Conflict Preventing Conflict Preparing for Conflicts

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 7 Survey: Conflict Management Styles Activity: Observing Conflict Management Styles

Chapter 8 Social Influence and Power Learning Objectives 8.1 Understanding Social Influence and Power

Conformity Conversion Obedience

8.2 Types Of Power Bases of Power Influence Tactics Influence Tactics in Virtual Teams

8.3 Power Dynamics Status and the Corrupting Effect of Power Unequal Power in a Team Managing Unequal Power in a Team

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8.4 Empowerment Degrees of Empowerment Programs Barriers to Empowerment Programs

8.5 Application: Acting Assertively Power Styles Use of Power Styles Encouraging Assertiveness

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 8 Activity: Using Power Styles—Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive

Chapter 9 Decision Making Learning Objectives 9.1 Decision Making in Teams 9.2 Deciding How to Decide: Evaluating Decision- Making Approaches 9.3 Individual Decision Making

Leader Decides Designated Expert Consultative Decision Making Problems With Individual Decision Making

9.4 Group Decision Making Aggregation Without Interaction Aggregation With Limited Group Interaction Fully Interacting Teams Problems With Group Decision Making

9.5 Crowd and Algorithmic Decision Making Wisdom of the Crowd Prediction Markets Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 9 Activity: Making Consensus Decisions Activity: Group Versus Individual Decision Making

Chapter 10 Leadership and Followership Learning Objectives 10.1 Defining Leadership

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10.2 Leadership Emergence Leader Traits, Abilities, and Behaviors Follower Perceptions

10.3 Models of Effective Leadership Trait Approach Behavioral Approach Contingency Approach Relational Approach Charismatic Approach

10.4 Team Leadership Functional Approach Shared Leadership

10.5 Followership Summary Team Leadership Challenge 10 Activity: Observing the Leader’s Behavior

Chapter 11 Problem Solving Learning Objectives 11.1 Understanding Problems 11.2 Descriptive Approach: How Teams Typically Solve Problems 11.3 Rational Problem Solving: How Teams Should Solve Problems

Problem Recognition Problem Definition Problem Analysis Establishing Solution Criteria Generating Alternatives and Selecting a Solution Implementation Evaluation

11.4 Application: Constructing a Shared Mental Model Through Process Mapping Summary Team Leadership Challenge 11 Activity: Using Problem-Solving Techniques

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Chapter 12 Creativity, Innovation, and Design Thinking

Learning Objectives 12.1 Creativity and Innovation 12.2 Four Phases of the Idea Journey

Idea Generation Idea Elaboration Idea Championing Idea Implementation

12.3 What Is Design Thinking? Embrace Innovation: Design Thinking in Action

12.4 The Design Thinking Process Empathize Define Ideate Prototype Test

12.5 Promoting Team Creativity and Innovation Team Diversity Information Integration Conflict Team Climate for Innovation Organizational Context

12.6 Virtual Creativity Summary Team Leadership Challenge 12 Activity: Comparing Different Creativity Techniques

Chapter 13 Diversity and Inclusion Learning Objectives 13.1 The Importance of Diversity 13.2 Difference and Diversity

Types of Difference Types of Diversity Diversity Over Time

13.3 How Diversity Operates Personality Traits

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Social Processes Cognitive Processes

13.4 Effects of Diversity on Team Performance Categorization–Elaboration Model

13.5 Application: Supporting Diversity and Inclusion

Managing Goals and Identities Diversity Training Fostering Inclusion Leadership

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 13 Survey: Work Group Inclusion Activity: Understanding Gender and Status Differences in a Team

Part IV Organizational Context of Teams Chapter 14 Team, Organizational, and International Culture

Learning Objectives 14.1 What Is Culture? 14.2 Team Culture 14.3 Defining Organizational Culture 14.4 Organizational Culture and Teamwork 14.5 Dimensions of International Culture

Individualism Versus Collectivism Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance Comparing the United States and Japan

14.6 International Differences in Teamwork 14.7 Multinational Teams

Characteristics of Multinational Teams Creating Effective Multinational Teams

14.8 Cultural Intelligence Summary Team Leadership Challenge 14 Survey: Individualism–Collectivism

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Activity: Evaluating a Team’s Culture and Cultural Context Activity: Comparing Teams in the United States and Japan

Chapter 15 Virtuality and Teamwork Learning Objectives 15.1 Virtuality and Virtual Teams 15.2 Communication Technologies

Characteristics of Communication Technologies Types of Communication Technologies

15.3 Geographic Dispersion Spatial Dispersion Temporal Dispersion Configurational Dispersion

15.4 Managing Virtuality on Teams Determine Team Size and Locations Develop Virtual Teams Develop Knowledge of Communication Technologies Use Skillful Virtual Communication Consider the Intercultural Context Develop and Sustain Trust Adapt Leadership to Virtuality

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 15 Activity: Developing Norms for Virtual Teams Activity: Experiencing Teamwork in a Simulated Virtual Team

Chapter 16 Evaluating and Rewarding Team Performance Learning Objectives 16.1 Performance Management 16.2 Evaluating Performance

Measure Individual and Team Performance Measure Processes and Outcomes Develop Measures With Internal and External Input

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Gather Ongoing Performance Information From Multiple Sources Use Performance Reviews to Foster Learning and Development

16.3 Rewarding Performance Rewarding Individual Team Member Performance Rewarding Team Performance Rewarding Organizational Performance Combining Reward Programs Relationship of Rewards to Types of Teams Linking Rewards to Types of Team

Summary Team Leadership Challenge 16 Survey: Individual Versus Team Rewards Activity: Evaluating and Rewarding a Project Team Activity: Team Halo Effect

Chapter 17 Team Development Interventions Learning Objectives 17.1 What Are Team Development Interventions? 17.2 Team Building

Does Your Team Need Team Building? 17.3 Types of Team-Building Programs

Goal Setting Role Clarification Interpersonal Relations Cohesion Building Problem Solving

17.4 Team Training Establishing the Need for Team Training Fostering an Effective Team-Training Climate Designing an Effective Team-Training Program Evaluating the Training Program Sustaining Trained Teamwork Behaviors

17.5 Types of Training Team Resource Management Training Cross-Training and Interpositional Training Action Learning

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Summary Team Leadership Challenge 17 Activity: Team Building Activity: Appreciative Inquiry of Teamwork

Appendix: Guide to Student Team Projects A.1 Starting the Team

Team Warm-Ups Developing a Team Contract Leadership and Meeting Roles Managing Team Technology

A.2 Planning and Developing the Project Challenging the Assignment Generating Project Ideas Brainwriting Method Project Planning Roles and Assignments Reevaluating the Project and Approach

A.3 Monitoring the Project and Maintaining Teamwork Team Meetings: Sharing Information, Making Decisions, and Tracking Assignments Group Process Evaluations Managing Problem Behaviors Milestone: Midpoint Evaluation

A.4 Performing Team Writing Overall Strategy Division of Work

A.5 Wrapping Up and Completing the Project Milestone: Precompletion Planning Team Evaluations Celebrating Success and Learning From the Experience

References Index

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NEW TO THIS EDITION

This edition marks numerous revisions to this text, both major and minor. While the essence of the book remains the same, each chapter has been revised, pruned, expanded, or restructured in some way. New engaging examples illustrate concepts central to team functioning. These changes are not merely cosmetic—the number of references in this edition more than doubled, growing from 528 to 1,113. Of these references, 280 represent studies and examples published since 2014. This was done with the dual purpose of supporting assertions with the latest scientific knowledge and serving as a reference for students wanting to learn more.

Additionally, several chapters have been completely rewritten and updated. A summary of major chapter revisions is provided here:

Chapter 1: New discussion of why understanding groups and teams is important for students, organizations, and society. In-depth differentiation between groups and teams. Expanded summary of contemporary group dynamic research that includes robotic teammates, artificial intelligence, and wearable sensors.

Chapter 2: Incorporation of Marks, Mathieu, and Zaccaro’s (2001) temporal model of teamwork processes. New discussion of mindsets drawing upon Amy Edmondson’s work on teaming.

Chapter 3: The negative effects of too many and too challenging goals are discussed. Wells Fargo’s unauthorized creation of 2 million bank accounts serves as a poignant example. Expanded discussion of how norms form and impact group functioning clarify these concepts. Illustrations of how norms shape group behaviors,

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including the development of gendered communication norms in oil rig workers and the underhanded free shot technique shunned by basketball players.

Chapter 4: Expanded and updated discussion of cohesion, team adaptability, team learning, shared mental models, transactive memory systems, and reflexivity that references recent scholarship. A new activity to visually track and reflect on teamwork behaviors is described.

Chapter 5: Revised and expanded discussion of social- values orientation, benefits of competition, cooperative learning experiences, and skills associated with cooperation.

Chapter 6: New concepts include using boundary objects to reduce miscommunication in teams, empirically based guidelines for giving an apology to repair trust, and updated recommendations for virtual and face-to-face team meetings.

Chapter 7: Restructured the chapter to emphasize task, process, and relational conflict in teams. Additional content describes how to strategically align conflict management style with the kind of conflicts that the team is experiencing. New discussion reveals how to reduce team conflict through cognitive reappraisals.

Chapter 8: Expanded discussion of responses to social influence, including defiance, resistance, compliance, and acceptance. New content describes different social- influence tactics in virtual contexts. Team empowerment is discussed in greater detail and is clarified through the extended example of a captain’s unconventional command of a nuclear submarine.

Chapter 9: Completely revised and expanded the discussion of decision making. New topics include the influence of

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culture on preference for different techniques, poor decisions through decision fatigue, and heuristics. Examples are provided of various decision-making strategies, such as aggregating individual responses without interaction to discover the location of a sunken submarine. Emerging decision-making methods are introduced, including the wisdom of crowds, prediction markets, and machine learning. Four methods for integrating artificial intelligence into decision making are discussed.

Chapter 10: Completely revised and restructured chapter to describe trait, behavioral, contingency, relational, charismatic, functional, and shared leadership. Followership is also emphasized to illustrate the mutually reinforcing relationship between leaders and followers. Expanded discussion distinguishes between leader emergence and leader effectiveness. Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory discussed with more depth, with special attention given to how unequal relationships between team members can produce inequalities. A table describing dimensions of high-quality versus low-quality communication exchanges grounds understanding of this important theory.

Chapter 11: Completely revised and restructured this chapter on problem solving. New discussions distinguish between well-structured and ill-structured problems. Greatly expanded section on rational problem solving discusses problem recognition, problem definition, problem analysis, establishing solution criteria, generating alternatives, selecting a solution, and implementing and evaluating the solution. For each step of this sequence, specific evidence-based guidance is offered.

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Chapter 12: Completely revised and restructured this chapter to focus on creativity, innovation, and design thinking. New discussion of moving an idea from generation to implementation emphasizes the changing skills and mindsets required of team members as they move through this process in an organizational context. Introduction to the design thinking process, a popular approach to collaboration and creativity, is given. Several illustrative examples, including Embrace’s development of a low-cost infant incubator, the founding of Zappos, and GE redesigning the MRI experience for children, illustrate these mindsets and processes. Specific creativity techniques, tools, and mindsets are described, such as mind mapping, validating assumptions, and building experiential prototypes.

Chapter 13: Revised the discussion of diversity and added a new focus on difference and inclusion. Situates the importance of managing diversity and inclusion within contemporary workplace and societal contexts. New content focuses on individual traits (authoritarianism and social-dominance orientation) that contribute to intergroup dynamics. Features a new discussion of how different kinds of stereotypes manifest in different kinds of behaviors and attitudes. The categorization– elaboration model is introduced to emphasize the importance of information elaboration in order to maximize the benefits of diversity. Inclusivity is highlighted; it’s essential to supporting diversity in teams. A new survey and the end of the chapter measure the level of work group inclusion felt by each member.

Chapter 14: A new introduction describes the concept of culture in greater detail and offers an example to illustrate how it impacts behavior. The section on team culture has been expanded to describe how teams can create and reinforce values, using Amazon’s continued

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use of the inexpensive “door desk” as an example. It also describes when a strong team culture is a disadvantage using the example of the challenges faced by an experienced team of engineers mandated with designing an inexpensive printer. Misalignments between team and organizational culture are discussed, and this includes an example showing how a team culture prevented the use of organizationally sanctioned parental leave. The section on intercultural dimensions of culture has been expanded and now recommends care in broadly applying cultural dimensions to individuals based on work by Brewer and Venaik (2014). A new section introduces Earley and Ang’s (2003) concept of cultural intelligence to explain how metacognition, motivation, and behaviors are critical for success in multicultural teams.

Chapter 15: This chapter has been restructured around the two dimensions of virtuality: communication technologies and geographic dispersion. New research on several kinds of virtual-teamwork technologies is presented, including text-based messaging, conferencing, social media, and 3D virtual environments. Guidance for writing effective e- mail messages is a new addition, as is an updated table summarizing various communication technologies. A new section organized around O’Leary and Cummings’s (2007) conception of geographic dispersion discusses the differential impact of spatial, temporal, and configurational dispersion on team functioning. The end of the chapter now focuses on techniques for managing virtual teams, including intercultural communication competences, trust development techniques, developing virtual teams, and leadership.

Chapter 16: Revised this chapter to focus on team performance management systems. Guidance is provided in developing measurements for individual and team performance, along with a new discussion of practical

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skills for designing, measuring, and implementing team performance evaluation systems based on Aguinis, Joo, and Gottfredson (2011). Practical guidance on giving performance feedback to individuals and teams in a productive manner is provided.

Chapter 17: Reframed the chapter to situate team building and team training within the contemporary concept of team development interventions. New discussion emphasizes the development of the attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions (the ABCs) of teamwork. Revised discussion of team building includ