Milestone 5: Dissertation Proposal Presentation and Defense Work with your dissertation chair to determine any specific instructions or guidance that he or she may have for you. Once yo

The of Leadership Styles on Employee Performance, Motivation, and Job Satisfaction in a Remote Setting

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Chapters 1, 2, & 3

Amekí Williams

South University

Doctoral Dissertation Proposal Defense

Dr. Widner

Sep. 18, 2023

Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 4 Purpose of the study 7 Statement of the Problem 7 Definition of Terms 7 Theoretical Framework 8 Research Questions and Hypotheses 9 Scope of the Study 9 Significance of the Study 10 Summary 10 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 11 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 36 Research Design 36 Quantitative Causal Comparative Design 36 Research Questions 37 Table1. 38 Population and Sample 39 Remote employees 39 Quantitative Sample Size 39 Instrumentation 40 Data collection 41 Validity 43 Reliability 44 Data Analysis: Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) 45 Research Procedures 46 Protection of Human Rights 46 Ethics 47 Delimitations and Limitations 47 Assumptions, Risk, and Biases 48 Data Assumptions 48 Assumption 1 50 Assumption 2 50 Assumption 3 50 Assumption 4 51 Assumption 5 51 Assumption 6 52 Assumption 7 52 Assumption 8 52 Assumption 9 52 Assumption 10 53 Table 2. 53 Significance of the Study 55 Summary 55 References 57 Appendices 65 Appendix A: Informed Consent Form for Participants 66 Appendix B: Demographics 67 Screening Questionnaire for Participants 67 Appendix C: Research Permission 68 IWPQ Permission to Use 69 Appendix D: MLQ Permission 71 Appendix E: MLQ 72 Appendix F: Individual Work Performance Questionnaire (IWPQ) 74 Appendix G: G*Power 77 Appendix H: SurveyMonkey 78 The Questionnaire: 78 Appendix I: Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) 80 Appendix J: Permission for Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) 82

Chapter 1: Introduction

Apart from the continuous advancements in technology, the world has continued to accept the need of remote work setting. After the COVID-19 breakout, the idea of remote working has not only been effective but it has also shown a promising future due to the increased employee performance and satisfaction. However, remote work setting has also presented a few challenges that majorly depend on type of leadership applied which also aligns with the needed work structure and culture. With this information in mind, the paper will highly focus on analyzing the impact of various leadership styles and approaches on employee motivation, performance, and job satisfaction on remote setting. The extensiveness of the research will be guided by different factors that largely ‘touch’ on issues affecting productive and proactive work environment, i.e., organizational structure, management, culture, and the nature of work setting.

When dealing with workers on a remote work setting, the style of leadership approach has to capture various essential details that affect employee motivation and satisfaction. Any employee working in a remote work setting is expected to experience a number of challenges which can vary depending on the individual’s personality and background. In most cases, employees will be expected to feel isolated, pressured, lack structure, and have difficulty in separating personal life and work (Chen, Liu, & Zhang, 2020). On the same note, workers in remote work setting have been described to have a lot of difficulties when it came to effective communication and collaborations among the management structure. These issues are a direct result of geographical difference and the aspect of facing various additional problems. In response to these challenges, majority of employees in remote workplace tend to feel unmotivated and unsatisfied with their work since everyone tends lose interest to that common goal.

In any work setting, attaining effective leadership can be quite challenging which makes it even more difficult when it comes to remote setting. It’s important to start by noting that leadership plays a very crucial role in promoting effective communication that translates to a proactive and productive workforce (Chen, Liu, & Zhang, 2020). Following the above comment, remote workplace creates a bit complicated scenario of which the absence of physical leadership prompts out various challenges such lack of motivation, guidance, and most importantly support from one another. Though Karim & Abbas, (2020) findings, leadership style has a significant connection with how employees view their work experience and how they find their place within an organization. For instance, participative and transformational leadership styles have been commended on improving employee performance while at the same time increasing their job satisfaction.

Despite having various challenges, remote working has shown very promising prospects in terms of employee performance, motivation, and satisfaction. According to the report from big IT companies such as Alphabet, Microsoft, Meta, Amazon, and others, workers have shown an increased sense of creativity while work in remote areas as compared when they are operating within their work stations. This finding has forced most of these companies to review working policies with workers being allowed to work more remotely. While implementing such a plan, there must be full account of all features affecting employees where the style of leadership chosen must be able to offer each employee with the needed inspiration and guidance. In relation to remote work setting, the instilled leadership style has to cover each individual traits as it would highly depend on their reactions without being supervised (Chen, Liu, & Zhang, 2020).

Depending on the nature and type of workforce, the ability to choose the right style of leadership can be a little difficult than most us would assume or expect. For example, it would take a very different actions to give direction to non-skilled workforce as compared to semi-skilled or skilled workforce (Goleman, 2000). Because of this issues, various scholars and researchers have devoted a lot of their efforts in identifying leadership determinants across different time and cultures. As times keep on changing, the world has been forced to change or to quickly adapt to the new demands of workplace environment (Allred, Crawford, David, & Anderson, 2018). For instance, a lot of ‘giant’ companies around the world have resulted on exploiting cheap labor on foreign countries which showcases the essence of output cost while disregarding employee wants and needs. If anyone would closely check, one would see or find out that most these companies contradict their organizational goals, culture, and ethics just to increase their returns.

Over the past few decades, there have been a lot of research done of styles of leadership and the context in which they suitably work. In general, leadership style can be described as an approach or structure used to direct or coordinate team or teams to achieve a common goal. Therefore, it’s essential to note that leadership plays a crucial role in any organization in relation to providing employees with motivation, direction, and purpose of achieving the organization mission and goals. According Araz & Azadegan-Mehr, (2021), for any leadership style to be considered effective, it must have a well-structured communication channel that allows smooth flow of information without or with minimal distortion. With this in mind, effective leadership style must be reliable in terms of delivering messages while at the same time positively influencing employee’s attitude. These aspects have been identified in the paper as one of the main features that must accounted when choosing a leadership style for remote workers.

Across the paper, there are various styles covered which all have different approaches and application. However, in regards to the topic at hand, participative and transformational leadership style have a significant impact on remote working employees. These two types of leadership have been described to have a great influence on employee’s performance, motivation, and satisfaction. The main elements that have contributed to this success is the fact that employees are able to express their ideas and emotions to one another by participating in decision making process (Allred et. Al., 2018). On the other hand, depending on the nature of work, the style of leadership also tends to vary with some work, such in the security sector, being sensitive than others thereby requiring more rigid structures.

In summary, it’s important to note that effective leadership style is also highly dependent on the organization structure and culture irrespective of whether it’s operating physically or remotely. Apart from only offering direction, an effective leadership style has to set a tone for the organization by establishing a clear vision, mission, goals, and values that helps it to thrive. Therefore, the alignment of leadership style and organizational structure and culture is significantly important in achieving employee’s performance, motivation, and job satisfaction. Depending on the organizational structure and culture, effective leadership style has to maintain control and ensure compliance with the rules and regulation.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

According to Den Hartog and Koopman (2001), leadership is a crucial aspect of organizational management, and it plays a significant role in determining employee motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational culture. A leader's behavior, actions, and communication style can significantly influence these three factors. First, leadership affects employee motivation. Leaders can inspire, motivate and encourage their followers to achieve their goals (Amabile et al., 2004). Effective leaders can create a shared vision and mission that fosters a sense of purpose and belonging among their employees. By doing so, leaders can create a sense of ownership and accountability among their employees, which can increase their motivation to perform their job duties to the best of their abilities.

Second, leaders who are supportive, approachable, and willing to listen to their employees can foster a positive work environment, thus impacting job satisfaction. Leaders who recognize and appreciate their employees' efforts and contributions can help to create a culture of recognition and appreciation. This type of culture can increase employee job satisfaction and create a sense of belonging within the organization. Finally, leadership affects organizational culture. The behavior and actions of leaders can significantly influence the organizational culture. Leaders who promote open communication, collaboration, and teamwork can foster a culture of innovation and creativity (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). In contrast, leaders who are hierarchical, controlling, and resistant to change can stifle creativity and create a negative culture.

Several factors influence leadership, and they include the leader’s personality, the followers’ expectations, the organizational culture, and the external environment (Van Knippenberg et al., 2004). The leader's personality plays a crucial role in shaping the leadership style that they employ. For instance, authoritarian leaders tend to be dominant, assertive, and controlling. On the other hand, democratic leaders tend to be sociable, friendly, and approachable. The followers’ expectations also influence the leadership style that a leader employs. Leaders who are appointed to lead a team with experienced and skilled followers may adopt a democratic leadership style because they recognize that their followers have valuable contributions to make.

A study conducted by O'Reilly and Chatman (1996) established that organizational culture also plays a significant role in shaping leadership. Leaders who are appointed to lead organizations with a bureaucratic culture may adopt an authoritarian leadership style because the culture values compliance and adherence to rules and regulations. On the other hand, leaders who are appointed to lead organizations with a flexible culture may adopt a laissez-faire or transformational leadership style because the culture values innovation and creativity. The external environment also influences leadership. According to Goleman (2000), leaders who operate in a stable environment may adopt a laissez-faire leadership style because the environment is predictable, and there is little need for supervision. On the other hand, leaders who operate in a volatile environment may adopt an authoritarian leadership style because the environment requires quick decisions and decisive action.

Just as leadership styles, leadership theories are of importance to leaders. These theories aim to explain the nature of leadership, how it evolves, and how it is practiced. Numerous theories have been proposed over the years, and they can be broadly categorized into trait, behavioral, contingency, transformational, and situational theories. Trait theories propose that leadership is a function of an individual's inherent traits, such as intelligence, self-confidence, and assertiveness (Lussier & Achua, 2015). These theories suggest that individuals with certain characteristics are more likely to emerge as leaders and are better suited to leadership roles. Early trait theories focused on identifying specific personality traits that were associated with effective leadership. For example, the "Great Man" theory proposed that leaders were born, not made, and that they possessed innate qualities such as intelligence, charisma, and confidence (Dinh et al., 2014). Later trait theories focused on identifying broader categories of traits, such as the Big Five personality traits (i.e., extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience).

In comparison, behavioral theories focus on identifying the specific behaviors that effective leaders exhibit. These theories propose that leadership is not based on inherent traits but rather on learned behaviors. The Ohio State University studies identified two dimensions of leader behavior: initiating structure (the extent to which a leader defines and organizes tasks and roles) and consideration (the extent to which a leader shows concern for the well-being and personal needs of employees) (Amabile et al., 2004). Another influential behavioral theory is the contingency theory of leadership, which proposes that effective leadership depends on the situation in which it is practiced (Dinh et al., 2014).

Contingency theories are also critical and propose that effective leadership is contingent upon the specific situation in which it is practiced. These theories suggest that different situations require different types of leadership behaviors or styles. The most well-known contingency theory is the situational leadership theory, which proposes that leaders should adjust their leadership style to the development level of their followers. The path-goal theory of leadership is another contingency theory that suggests that leaders should provide guidance and support to employees to help them achieve their goals (Dinh et al., 2014).

Transformational theories have gained the attention of various authors in the recent past. These theories propose that leadership is a process of inspiring and motivating followers to achieve their full potential. They suggest that effective leaders are those who can articulate a vision and inspire others to work towards it. The transformational leadership theory proposed by James MacGregor Burns (1978) suggests that effective leaders are those who can inspire followers to transcend their self-interests and work towards a shared vision. Bass and Avolio (1994) later developed the full range model of transformational leadership, which includes four components: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.

Another set of theories entail the situational theories, which propose that leadership effectiveness depends on the specific situation in which it is practiced. These theories suggest that leaders must adapt their leadership style to the situation in order to be effective. The situational leadership theory proposed by Hersey and Blanchard (1982) suggests that leaders should adjust their leadership style to the development level of their followers. The leader-member exchange theory is another situational theory that proposes that leaders develop unique relationships with each of their followers, and that the quality of these relationships affects leadership effectiveness (Lussier & Achua, 2015).

Without a doubt, effective leadership has a significant impact on organizational success. Effective leaders can improve the organization's performance by setting goals, inspiring and motivating employees, promoting innovation and creativity, and fostering a positive work environment. According to Den Hartog and Koopman (2001), leaders who can create a positive work environment are more likely to have satisfied employees who are loyal to the organization. A positive work environment fosters collaboration, teamwork, and mutual respect, which leads to increased productivity and job satisfaction as established by Van Knippenberg et al. (2004).

Additionally, leaders who can inspire and motivate employees can create a sense of purpose and direction for the organization just as highlighted by Goleman (2000). This can lead to increased employee engagement, which can improve organizational performance. Effective leaders also promote innovation and creativity, which can lead to new ideas and products that can help the organization stay competitive. Leaders who promote innovation and creativity are more likely to have employees who are willing to take risks and try new things (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001).

Various researchers have studied leadership development and training, which has been established to be critical to the success of organizations. Effective leaders are needed to motivate and inspire employees, create a positive organizational culture, and achieve strategic goals (O'Reilly & Chatman, 1996). Taking into account the significance of leadership development and training, research has shown that effective leaders can positively impact employee engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational performance (Dinh et al., 2014). However, many organizations struggle to develop effective leaders. A lack of leadership development and training can result in low employee morale, high turnover rates, and a decline in organizational performance (Lussier & Achua, 2015).

There are various approaches to leadership development and training. Some organizations use internal development programs, while others hire external consultants to provide training. Research has shown that the most effective leadership development programs are those that are tailored to the individual needs of the leader. Additionally, effective leadership development programs should be based on evidence-based practices and should involve ongoing feedback and coaching (Dinh et al., 2014).

For both traditional and remote work settings, research has shown that leadership development and training can have a positive impact on employee engagement, job satisfaction, and organizational performance as documented by Lussier and Achua (2015). Effective leadership development programs can also lead to increased innovation and creativity within the organization. However, the impact of leadership development and training can vary depending on the specific program and the individual leader. Despite the importance of leadership development and training, there are many challenges that organizations face in implementing effective programs. One of the main challenges is the cost of leadership development and training programs (Lussier & Achua, 2015). Additionally, some organizations struggle to identify the most effective approaches to leadership development and training.

In relation to the need to attain optimum results, it is paramount to evaluate the effectiveness of leadership development and training programs before implementation. Leadership development and training programs are designed to improve the knowledge, skills, and abilities of individuals in leadership roles. The aim is to enhance leadership effectiveness, productivity, and organizational outcomes. The effectiveness of these programs can be evaluated based on various factors, including the program's content, delivery, and outcomes. Firstly, the content of the program is a critical factor in evaluating its effectiveness. The program should be designed to meet the specific needs of the participants, be based on current research and best practices, and cover a wide range of topics related to leadership. The content should also be relevant to the participants' roles and responsibilities.

Secondly, the delivery of the program is crucial. The program should be delivered in a manner that is engaging, interactive, and tailored to the participants' learning styles. The delivery method could include a combination of classroom sessions, online modules, simulations, and coaching sessions. The program should also provide opportunities for participants to practice their skills and receive feedback from their peers and instructors. Moreover, the outcomes of the program should be evaluated to determine its effectiveness. The outcomes could include improved leadership skills, increased productivity, improved employee engagement, and retention rates. The evaluation should be conducted at different intervals, such as immediately after the program, six months, and one year after completion. Studies have shown that leadership development and training programs can be effective in improving leadership skills, increasing productivity, and improving employee engagement and retention rates. For instance, a study by the Center for Creative Leadership found that leadership development programs improved participants' self-awareness, interpersonal skills, and ability to manage and lead teams effectively.

The advent of remote work, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has brought a new dimension to leadership research. Leaders in remote settings face a unique challenge in ensuring that employees remain motivated, productive, and satisfied. Notably, remote work settings are unique because they lack face-to-face communication, which can lead to a lack of trust, communication, and collaboration (Kirkman, Rosen, Gibson, Tesluk, & McPherson, 2002). In a remote work setting, leaders need to create a sense of community and maintain open communication channels to ensure employee engagement and productivity. As organizations adopt remote work, leaders must be able to adjust their leadership styles to suit the remote work environment.

The study conducted by Chen, Liu, and Zhang (2020) indicate that leadership is an essential component of organizational success, and effective leadership is even more critical in a remote setting. In such a setting, leaders must also be able to adapt to the challenges and opportunities presented by the virtual work environment. However, it is paramount for leaders to grasp an understanding of these associated opportunities and challenges. According to Gajendran and Harrison (2007), remote work provides many opportunities for both employees and employers in the sense that it promotes flexibility. Employees can work from anywhere, and employers can benefit from a workforce that is not limited to a specific geographical area. This flexibility can also reduce stress levels and increase job satisfaction, which can translate into increased productivity (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Remote work also reduces operational costs for organizations, such as rent, utilities, and office supplies. This cost-saving allows companies to invest in other areas, such as employee training and development. Additionally, remote work allows organizations to access a more diverse pool of talent, regardless of geographic location (Bughin et al., 2018). Remote work also presents opportunities for work-life balance. With remote work, employees can better manage their personal responsibilities, such as childcare or caring for elderly parents. This flexibility can also reduce the likelihood of burnout, which is a significant problem in the workplace (Moen et al., 2015).

While remote work presents many opportunities, it also presents various challenges. One of the significant challenges is communication. Golden et al. (2020) document that remote work can create communication barriers, such as time zone differences, language barriers, and technological issues, which potentially lead to misunderstandings, delays, and reduced productivity. Another significant challenge is isolation. Remote workers may feel isolated from the rest of the team, leading to feelings of loneliness and disengagement (Kim & Wind, 2020). This can also lead to reduced collaboration and difficulty in building relationships with colleagues. With this in mind, managing remote workers is also a challenging task. According to McGregor and Harris (2018), leaders and managers may struggle to manage the performance of remote workers and may find it difficult to provide feedback. Additionally, remote workers may face difficulties in balancing their work and personal lives, leading to them being workaholics and increasing employee burnout (Golden et al., 2020).

Leaders are mandated to address the challenges of remote working to reap maximized benefits and attain desirable outcomes. They must provide clear communication and guidance to their employees, build trust and rapport, and foster a sense of community among the team. Research has shown that effective communication is critical in remote work environments (Golden et al., 2020). Leaders must be able to communicate effectively through various virtual channels such as video conferencing, instant messaging, and email. Furthermore, leaders must also be able to address the unique challenges faced by remote workers, such as feelings of isolation and lack of support. The role of leadership in promoting employee well-being and mental health in a remote setting is crucial (Golden et al., 2020). Leaders must be able to provide support and resources to their employees to promote well-being and prevent burnout. Without a doubt, the role of leadership styles in a remote setting cannot be overemphasized.

Leadership is a multifaceted phenomenon that has been studied by researchers from different perspectives over the years. Various authors argue that leadership style is an essential factor that can influence employee behavior, performance, motivation, and job satisfaction in a remote setting (Chen, Liu, & Zhang, 2020; Goleman, 2000). According to Goleman (2000), there are six leadership styles: coercive, authoritative, affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, and coaching. These leadership styles have been linked to significant inputs and outcomes in the traditional setting, despite the minimal drawbacks. For starters, coercive leadership style entails the use of threats, punishments, and force by leaders to get their followers to comply with their instructions. It is often used in situations where quick and decisive action is required, or in situations where there is a high level of uncertainty or risk. While coercive leadership can be effective in certain situations, it can also be damaging to organizations and their followers, particularly if it is applied in a remote work setting as documented by Kelloway, Francis, and Gatien (2012).

One of the key concerns with coercive leadership is its impact on the psychological well-being of individuals. Research suggests that leaders who rely on coercive tactics can create an environment of fear and anxiety, leading to reduced job satisfaction, increased stress, and decreased commitment among followers (Kelloway et al., 2012). This can also lead to increased turnover and absenteeism, as well as a decline in productivity and performance (García-Morales, Jiménez-Barrionuevo, & Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, 2012). Moreover, coercive leadership can also create a toxic organizational culture that is focused on compliance rather than collaboration and innovation (Pearce & Conger, 2003). This can hinder creativity and hinder progress towards organizational goals. On the other hand, some studies have found that in certain situations, such as during times of crisis, coercive leadership can be an effective means of managing the situation and achieving the desired outcome (Bass & Riggio, 2006). In addition to the impact on individuals and organizations, research has also explored the factors that influence the use of coercive leadership. One key factor is the leader’s personality traits, such as their need for control and their level of aggression (Zhang & Bednall, 2016). Another factor is the organizational culture and its tolerance for authoritarian leadership styles (García-Morales, Jiménez-Barrionuevo, & Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, 2012).

Authoritative leadership style has proved to be significant in both the traditional and remote work environments since the involved leaders who use this style provide clear direction and goals and allow their followers to exercise their own creativity and initiative in achieving the set goals. This leadership style is characterized by a focus on the big picture, a vision for the future, and a willingness to take risks. Research suggests that authoritative leadership can have positive effects on organizations and employees, even those in the remote work setting. Leaders who adopt an authoritative style tend to have a clear vision for the future and are able to communicate that vision effectively to their followers, creating a sense of purpose and direction (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). This can lead to increased motivation, job satisfaction, and commitment among followers (Xenikou & Simosi, 2006).

Moreover, authoritative leadership can also lead to higher levels of innovation and creativity in remote work settings (Amabile, Schatzel, Moneta, & Kramer, 2004). By giving followers the freedom to exercise their own creativity and initiative, leaders can tap into the unique talents and perspectives of their followers and encourage them to take risks and try new things. In addition to the positive effects on individuals and organizations, research has also explored the factors that influence the use of authoritative leadership. One key factor is the leader’s level of expertise and knowledge in their area of work (Yukl, 2010). Leaders who have a high level of expertise are better able to provide direction and guidance to their followers, while also allowing them to exercise their own creativity and initiative. Another factor is the organizational culture and its emphasis on innovation and risk-taking (Xenikou & Simosi, 2006). Organizations that value innovation and creativity are more likely to adopt an authoritative leadership style, as it allows for the exploration of new ideas and the pursuit of ambitious goals. For authoritative leaders in a remote setting, leaders are mandated to strike a balance between providing clear direction and allowing their followers to exercise their own creativity and initiative, which can be achieved by creating a culture of trust, collaboration, and open communication.

Affiliative leadership is another leadership style of