Prior to beginning work on this assignment read Chapter 6: Tracking Ideas and Sources from the text, and begin to research the ideas that you outlined in Week 2, using the University

6

Tracking Ideas and Sources

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Evaluate the importance and use of note-taking, including identifying the most effec- tive means of tracking sources and tracking ideas.

• Demonstrate effective strategies for taking notes, including the notecard method and computer notes.

• Explain the value of proper attributions to ensure the author of the idea is given proper credit.

• Explain the concept of plagiarism, including identifying when a piece of work is plagia- rized and how to protect against plagiarism.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes

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Organizing research and ideas beforehand allows for a smooth writing process.

The process of writing in social and criminal justice is precisely that—a process. Chapter 5 emphasizes the notion of critiquing, critical thinking, and being a savvy

consumer of research. This chapter provides the next steps in the process of writing like a criminologist. The analyses and evaluations of prior work will be the central focus of writ- ing the literature review, but the ability to generate ideas and track sources is critical for making proper attributions and avoiding plagiarism. There are so many rules and regula- tions about formal scholarly writing in criminal justice that it may seem overwhelming. However, by utilizing the methods, techniques, and advice offered throughout this chap- ter, students can avoid some of those potential risks and concentrate on completing an academically sound paper.

At this point, students should have already given much thought to the capstone research project and topic. Students should also be well into the exploration of databases, looking both broadly and deeply, to identify resources that appear to be relevant to the topic. This will include mostly journal articles, but books and other sources are acceptable, includ- ing available resources downloaded as PDFs or HTML files, or requested through interli- brary loan. When all articles and resources have been amassed, students might assume it is now time to start writing the first rough draft of the literature review section. Not quite! Each resource needs to be read, evaluated, and critiqued for possible inclusion in the actual research paper. This chapter describes different approaches for analyzing and extracting information, organizing it, and then putting it back together (synthesis) so that the literature review is more coherent and demonstrates the student’s ability to write like a researcher.

6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes

After gathering the sources for the research paper, it is time

to critically read and analyze the sources for information perti- nent to the topic for inclusion in the paper. There is no “right or wrong” way to do this, and there are numerous approaches. The organization of ideas and concepts beforehand will make the actual composition of the paper seem easy. In essence, this is a “pay me now or pay me later” scenario. Crafting a well-written research document that analyzes and syn- thesizes the available research on a complex topic is hard; there are no easy shortcuts except to plagiarize

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes

(more on avoiding plagiarism later in the chapter). Naturally, the “pay me now” option is preferable. Evaluating sources to understand and extract the central ideas and pertinent information may be time-consuming upfront, but it often results in a well written and more concise research paper.

Having a defined method of note-taking will allow the student to scan through many potential sources relatively quickly and systematically. Also, integrating multiple sources from the research in a paper shows signs of scholarly writing. In other words, when the literature is exhausted and the topic is understood top-to-bottom, the synthesis of these ideas will show in a clearly and concisely written document. In addition, the difference between a good paper and an excellent paper is often the level of synthesis. By taking notes while reviewing the literature, students can organize their thoughts and ideas beforehand, rather than at the moment of creation/typing/completion, which will result in an excellent and scholarly literature review.

Before taking notes, however, students need to have the topic identified, and the research question conceptualized. The next step is to develop an outline, which can easily be accomplished while searching databases for relevant sources. For example, a student may identify three or four major points just by reading the titles and abstracts of some of the resources retrieved through the literature search. In addition, subpoints may also be iden- tified that, along with the major points, create the outline for the literature review.

Tracking Sources Before the actual note-taking process begins, students should start by writing down the full reference for each source (see Figure 6.1 in Section 6.2). Giving credit where credit is due is important, as failure to do so means plagiarism, which can have serious repercus- sions (see Section 6.4). APA format requires a references page that lists every reference cited in the main text of the paper. These references are more important than a student might think. On the references page is a scholarly list that indicates those sources the stu- dent found relevant enough to include in the research paper. Identifying which sources need to be included is an essential aspect of the entire research project. Those sources listed on the references page and included in the paper indicate a proper and essential connection to the topic and the research question, which communicate a concise under- standing of the topic.

In addition, the reference list should be meticulously prepared, and students should note that there are many different APA format rules for different types of materials referenced. Examples and tips on properly preparing reference citations in APA format are found in the online library.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 The Importance of Taking Notes

Tracking Ideas There are basically three different strategies for taking notes on sources: direct quotations, para- phrasing, and summarizing (Harris, 2005; Univer- sity of Maryland University College, 2005). Each of these strategies has specific APA guidelines with which students should become familiar.

Direct Quotations Harris (2005) provided a number of examples in which students might consider using a direct quotation from another source in their own work: expert declaration, direct support, effec- tive language, historical flavor, specific example, controversial statement, or material for analysis. However, students should understand that direct quotes are to be used sparingly, as scholarly writ- ing does not involve a string of quotations. Rather, scholarly writing involves the interpretation and communication of ideas in the proper form. A string of direct quotations in a paper essentially means that other authors “wrote” the paper.

Students should use a direct quotation only when an author has said something so eloquently that using it directly preserves the meaning or impact of the original statement. For many writers, it is difficult to know when to use a direct quote and when not to use a direct quote. There is no “rule” to follow. However, students should determine whether the inclusion of the quotation would make the paper easier to comprehend. Direct quotes used sparingly and purposefully can be powerful, but too many direct quotes can make it look like the student did not want to provide any original thought or purpose to the paper. In other words, direct quotes should supplement the student’s written work, not be the main portion of that written work.

When considering the potential use of a direct quote from a particular source, students should remember to write down the direct quote and note the page number from the original source. In APA format (APA, 2010), the use of a direct quotation requires reporting the page number (or in some cases, paragraph number) from the quoted source. Also, if a long quote is used (more than 40 words), APA format requires that the quote be indented in the text (see the Publication Manual for more specific details). One last concern about quot- ing: too much quoting should not occur from a single source (Harris, 2005). If the goal of the assignment is to integrate and summarize previous research, quoting (or even citing) the same source over and over again shows no comprehensive review of the literature or synthesis of ideas from multiple sources.

Paraphrasing A paraphrase is very different from a direct quotation. When paraphrasing a source, the student will translate source author’s original words into his or her own words, roughly

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When taking notes, ideas may be recorded using quotations, by paraphrasing, or by summarizing.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Strategies for Taking Notes

using the same number of words (Harris, 2005; University of Maryland University Col- lege, 2005). Paraphrasing is often viewed as more scholarly than direct quotations because it demonstrates the student’s deeper understanding of the original work; in fact, it is quite a talent to be able to take another author’s ideas and convert them into a less complex form. Paraphrasing allows rewording, simplifying, or clarification of the meaning of the original writer. When recording ideas, most notes should be paraphrases.

Summarizing A summary is similar to a paraphrase in that the student will summarize (e.g., translate) the author’s original words into his or her own words. However, unlike the paraphrase, summarizing results in a shorter amount of text than the original work (Harris, 2005). A key benefit to using a summary is that the author’s original ideas are simplified and condensed. The student may not have the luxury of unlimited space to communicate his or her ideas, so summaries may help the writer adhere to specific guidelines. In addition, students can use summaries when extracting information for later notes.

It may appear that taking notes involves much work, and it does. But effective note-taking allows the student to better understand the research materials before writing the paper. Therefore, it is essential that author information for every source examined, along with every idea that could be used from that source, be written and saved for future inclusion in the research paper. If this is done upfront, then creating the final product—the final research paper—is greatly facilitated. There will be no need to scramble at the last minute for the journal title or volume number when typing the references, or to flip through pages and pages to locate a specific piece of information.

6.2 Strategies for Taking Notes

There are many different methods to take notes (e.g., recording information about a topic for later use in writing a paper). However, most of these methods will involve

either the use of paper and pencil or a computer. Students should experiment with one or both of these methods to determine which one is best suited to them. There is no right or wrong in choosing one method over the other; it is simply a matter of personal preference.

The Notecard Method The notecard method involves the use of 3×5-inch index cards to track sources (called “reference notecards”) and the use of 4×6-inch index cards to track ideas (called “idea note- cards”). The cards are coded so that the ideas can be easily identified with their sources.

For the reference notecard (see Figure 6.1), the student should write down the complete reference for the source. Write only one reference per notecard. In the top right corner, give each reference a code (A, B, C, etc.). Write each reference in APA format. Writing the ref- erence notecard in APA format saves time later when typing the references page of the paper, while putting one reference per card makes it easy to alphabetize the references.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Strategies for Taking Notes

Figure 6.1: Reference notecard

Example of a reference notecard (reduced in size). This represents a journal article and is as close to APA format as possible in handwriting.

For the idea notecard (see Figure 6.2), while reading and critiquing the material, the stu- dent should write down any idea that might be used in the paper. As with the reference notecard, write only one idea per notecard. For example, for Reference A, there may be four separate ideas possibly incorporated into the paper, labeled A1, A2, A3, and A4 in the top right corner. Recording a single idea on an idea notecard will make it an easy task to orga- nize, arrange, and rearrange those ideas into a coherent story, complete with reference material and integrated to demonstrate scholarly writing ability.

Figure 6.2: Idea notecard

Example of an idea notecard (reduced in size). This represents an idea from Reference A and is a paraphrased statement from the journal article cited.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Strategies for Taking Notes

Although the notecard method provides a fairly logical and orderly process to organiz- ing the sources and information, it can be laborious, time consuming, and involve a large quantity of notecards (Eisenberg, 2002). However, as noted earlier, it is a process that can greatly assist in the compilation of the material into the final research paper.

Computer Notes Many students today are computer savvy and prefer writing in an electronic medium rather than using paper and pencil. There are a number of computer-based programs available, some specifically designed for note-taking and writing. The advantages to tak- ing notes via a computer program include the ability to:

• download from websites directly into a note file; • cut and paste data directly; • move information around electronically rather than physically; • have a legible set of notes no matter one’s handwriting; and • cut and paste bibliographic information directly (Wiley Publishing, 2007).

However, there are some distinct disadvantages to computer note-taking, which include:

• backing up the notes is frequently necessary, or work may be lost; • scrolling to see the work makes seeing the big picture all at once a difficult task; • moving bits of information using cut and paste until the ideas are in the order

desired is time consuming; and • entering notes on a computer interrupts reading (Wiley Publishing, 2007).

Some of these disadvantages also apply to the notecard method, such as interrupting reading to write the notecards. However, as noted previously, it is a personal preference, and students should use the method that best suits them.

Numerous software programs can be used to customize the notes taken from the vari- ous sources. For example, Microsoft Word® can be used to organize references and ideas. However, some students prefer the ability to move and place the physical notecards in different orders. To accomplish this, after typing the notes into Word®, idea notes could be printed and the printed ideas cut into strips and moved around physically until in the desired order. Other examples include the use of Microsoft Excel®, whereby the student creates a spreadsheet that tracks reference materials and ideas (Geldon, 2002), or the use of a relational database such as Microsoft Access®, whereby the student organizes large volumes of complex ideas. Eisenberg (2002) suggested using Microsoft PowerPoint® for the notecard method. The major advantage of PowerPoint is that once the notecards are created as separate slides, the slide sorter feature can be used to arrange the ideas (slides) in any order desired. By including the bibliographic information in the header of each slide, the reference and idea notecards are combined into one slide.

There are other specialized note-taking programs as well. Microsoft offers the special- ized program OneNote® to assist in note-taking and information management. Some of the features of OneNote® include the ability to capture webpages, hyperlink, use file attachments, create tables, access drawing tools, and recognize text embedded in pictures (Microsoft Corporation, 2007). Using this program provides the added benefit of direct

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Strategies for Taking Notes

integration with other Microsoft® programs possibly in use. Another software alternative is Nota Bene™. This software is designed for academic research and writing, with numer- ous tools to handle word processing, organizing a general database as well as a biblio- graphic database (all of your references), a search engine, and more (Nota Bene, n.d.). A less complex alternative to OneNote® and Nota Bene™ is a program like ndxCards™, which allows the student to electronically take notes and then export those notes (and reference list information) to a word processor (TruTamil, 2004). More options to explore (with URLs) include:

• Zotero (www.zotero.org) • Endnote® Web (www.myendnoteweb.com) • Endnote® (www.endnote.com) • Mendeley™ (www.mendeley.com) • ProCite® (www.procite.com) • Reference Manager® (www.refman.com)

A student should select whatever approach meets his or her basic needs without becoming too complicated. The bottom-line goal is to be able to consider and sort ideas individually while preserving the source from which the idea originated. Using some variation of the notecard method in scientific writing will assist in completing a concise scholarly paper.

The university specifically offers the tool RefWorks (see Tips & Tools: Getting Started with RefWorks) to help students manage citations and references. RefWorks is compatible with the other search databases the university subscribes to, so students can, for example, export a journal article’s citation directly from the database to RefWorks. From there, the student can store and organize these citations and generate APA-formatted bibliographies and citations during the writing process. However, it is important that students not depend wholly on RefWorks and other programs to take care of all APA-formatting needs. When such digital tools are not available, students should have full confidence in their own abili- ties to create appropriate APA citations.

As notes for the research paper accumulate, students need to refer to the outline and work to fit the notes into the outline. The outline may require adjustment based on the infor- mation obtained, or a student may discover that a point in the outline is unsupported by evidence, prompting a return to the literature to retrieve more information (and take more notes). A student should go back and forth here as much as needed, because all of this work is going to pay off when writing begins, particularly on the first draft of the literature review. Effective preplanning upfront often makes complicated tasks go more smoothly in the long run.

Once all of the identified sources have been critiqued and all notecards, whether hand- written or electronic, have been created, it is time to actually start writing the paper. Here are a few points to remember. First, the text must be clear and concise; in other words, the writing should provide the necessary transition between ideas. Second, be sure to include the title. Third, the references page is presented at the end of the paper, although sources should be cited throughout the text using APA format.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Proper Attributions: Your Own Ideas Versus the Ideas of Others

6.3 Proper Attributions: Your Own Ideas Versus the Ideas of Others

The entire concept of the various strategies to take notes is designed to help track the ideas of others, and to give credit where credit is due and avoid plagiarism. But it

is difficult to determine from where or from whom an idea originated. In other words, did the student read about the idea or it is the student’s original idea? This is analogous to early childhood memories—as we get older, it is sometimes hard to differentiate our memory of an event versus our memories of hearing family stories of the event. It is not as straightforward at times to figure out the source. Further, what one assumes to be “com- mon knowledge” might not be as common as once thought. So, how does a student write a paper giving credit where credit is due but also express original ideas?

Harris (2005) offered advice about common knowledge and some of the hazards of relying on common knowledge in academic writing. He described the types of common knowledge as easily observable information (e.g., many trees lose their leaves in the fall), commonly reported facts (e.g., Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7, 1941), and common sayings (e.g., pay me now or pay me later). However, Harris (2005) also offered warnings and cau- tions about relying on common knowledge, especially without attribution (citation) in an academic paper:

• Hearing or reading the information in multiple locations does not make it “common”.

• A person’s interpretation of common knowledge often gets intertwined with the knowledge.

• There is often disagreement about the accuracy of common knowledge.

Harris (2005) also offered what he described as the “Golden Test”:

[Ask] yourself about how your reader might understand the source of the information. In other words, ask the question, “Will my reader likely believe that this information originated with me when it did not?” If the answer is “yes,” then you need a citation to correct your reader’s misun- derstanding. (p. 23)

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism

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Harris (2005) suggests that “if the information came from outside your own head, cite the source” (p. 16). In this photo, University of Maryland professor Chris Hansen discusses the ethics of plagiarism with his journalism students. These types of conversations are happening in universities all over the globe in order to communicate the severity of plagiarism.

6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism

Essentially, plagiarism is bor- rowing intellectual property

without crediting the original source. Giving credit where credit is due is vital. In criminal justice, researchers and academicians are extremely careful to avoid plagia- rism, which is one of the reasons so much attention is given to refer- ences and citation formatting. Ref- erences provide the reader with the intellectual path of the writer. There are at least two different cat- egories of plagiarism: intentional and unintentional, although other authors sometimes refer to unin- tentional plagiarism as sloppy writing (Harris, 2005).

Intentional plagiarism means what it says: cheating on pur- pose. Oftentimes intentional pla- giarism occurs when students procrastinate and panic when they are under a deadline to complete a writing assign- ment (Roig, 2008). Some examples of intentional plagiarism include

• downloading and turning in a paper from the Web; • including a graph or table from someone else’s work without proper citation; • copying phrases, sentences, or paragraphs from others’ work without using proper

citation or quotation format; • paraphrasing or summarizing others’ work without citation; and • turning in one’s own previously written work when prohibited to do so by the

instructor (Harris, 2005). This is referred to as “double-dipping” (Roig, 2008).

To give credit where credit is due, there are three basic strategies: paraphrasing, summa- rizing, and quoting (the same three strategies for recording information and ideas). Recall that paraphrasing is putting someone else’s ideas or words into one’s own words, and the amount of words used is roughly equivalent to the amount of words from the original source. Summarizing is providing an overview of the main points of someone else’s work, and the result is shorter than the original (Harris, 2005). A direct quote is using the exact words of the original author.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism

Unintentional plagiarism can occur through a number of methods. For example, a stu- dent might not completely understand the rules for citation, might be careless when tak- ing notes, might be citing uninformed opinions from the Internet, or might be sloppy in following APA rules for citation (Harris, 2005). The principle of “ignorance of the law is no excuse for breaking the law” can apply to academic writing (i.e., just because a student may be unaware of the plagiarism, it does not make the plagiarism acceptable). The best protection is to know, understand, and apply the rules for proper citation in APA format. Following this chapter’s suggestions for taking notes, whether in analog or digital form, can help to minimize the risk of plagiarism. Harris (2005) suggested this guideline: “If the information came from outside your own head, cite the source” (p. 16). Instructors can help make the distinctions between what needs to be cited and what doesn’t. Be care- ful with common knowledge as well (see the previous section), because sometimes it’s not always as common as everyone thinks. If the information to be presented as com- mon knowledge truly is common knowledge, then it should not be that difficult to locate a reference citation to support the claim as an added measure of avoiding plagiarism. Although some may not think that plagiarizing is a big deal, it often is (see Table 6.1).

Table 6.1: Reasons plagiarism is wrong

1. It is considered a criminal offense (i.e., it is the theft of intellectual property) and can result in fines and/or imprisonment.

2. It is academically dishonest and can lead to serious sanctions from the university.

3. It undermines the academic integrity and ethical atmosphere of the university.

4. It violates the mission of higher education to emphasize “a respect for knowledge.”

5. It involves a passive learning process that obstructs the acquisition and understand- ing of meaningful academic material.

6. It stalls or retards intellectual, moral, and social development.

7. It is contrary to the concept of critical thinking.

8. It promotes feelings of lowered self-esteem in those who believe they must prac- tice it to survive academically.

9. It produces alumni whose inferior knowledge, abilities, and moral standards tarnish the public image of the college and lower the perceived value of a degree in the eyes of those who evaluate current students who are seeking employment or admission into graduate school.

10. It violates the code of ethics of professional societies that represent the social sciences.

Modified from Appleby (2005, p. 9).

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Avoiding Plagiarism

What Is and Is Not Plagiarism? It may be difficult to differentiate between plagiarism and sloppy citation style. However, the distinction is important to avoid plagiarism.