QUESTION 1
What role does nonverbal communication play in intercultural interactions? Give examples both from research on nonverbal cultural distinctiveness and from your own experience that show how nonverbal differences between cultures can influence intercultural communication.
What were the main elements of the paradigm, defined as a conceptualization that provides exemplary problems and methods of research to a community of scholars (Kuhn, 1970), for intercultural communication?1. The FSI scholars focused on intercultural communication, rather than on macro-level monocultural study, which Hall originally (and unsuccessfully) taught the FSI trainees. Although intercultural communication had roots in anthropology and linguistics, it became quite different from either in the decades following 1955.2. Nonverbal communication, defined (by Hall) as communication that does not involve the exchange of words. Hall, Trager, and Birdwhistell created the empirical study of various types of nonverbal communication (proxemics, chronemics, and kinesics), setting forth the leads that were followed up by later generations of nonverbal communication scholars.3. The emphasis, especially in nonverbal communication, was on the out-of-awareness level of information-exchange. Here Hall was influenced by Sigmund Freud, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan (Hall, 1993), and by Raymond Birdwhistell.4. The approach to intercultural communication accepted cultural differences and was nonjudgmental, reflecting a perspective from anthropological research and training. Here, Hall followed in the footsteps of Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict in strongly supporting cultural relativism, the belief that a particular cultural element should only be judged in light of its context (Modell, 1983; Herskovits, 1973).5. Participatory training methods were necessitated in part because intercultural communication was taught in all-day workshop sessions at the Foreign Service Institute to midcareer trainees who already had extensive experience in the field. Hall and his fellow trainers at the FSI used simulation games, exercises, and other participant-involving methods of experiential instruction.6. Intercultural communication began as a highly applied type of training, intended to ameliorate the lack of skills of U.S. American diplomats and development technicians.These six main elements of the paradigm worked out at the Foreign Service Institute generally characterize the field of intercultural communication today as it is taught at U.S. universities (Gudykunst and Kim, 1984).
QUESTION 2
Read sidebar 9.1 in Chapter 9 of your textbook and answer the following questions: People from cultures who prefer direct communication methods often think that indirect communication methods are deceitful. Consider how you would respond to a colleague who asks, “Why don’t they just come out and tell the truth?” Is “contexting” relevant to Christians communicating about their faith to other Christians or non-Christians? Explain.
In Japan, it is difficult to say “no” simply and directly. A higher value is placed on maintaining the relationship than on clearly expressing one’s own feelings. Thus it is often considered best to accept a request, though one does not want to or seems unable to accept. While this is different when people are on intimate terms, outside the family directly declining requests is very difficult. Directly refusing a request may hurt the other person’s feelings and may give the impression that one is selfish and unfriendly for declining. For this reason, the Japanese equivalent of “no,” lie, sounds rather formal and too straightforward to Japanese, and they seem to unconsciously avoid using it. Foreigners wanting to communicate appropriately must develop competence in sending and receiving “no” messages. Particularly important in a hierarchical society like Japan is knowing when and to whom a particular form of “no” is appropriate. The means of refusing requests from employers or superiors will be different from those used for requests from peers.1. Vague no: Japanese like to use a vague response. Although the answer is negative, it is felt the listener will not be embarrassed if the speaker uses this “soft expression.”2. Vague and ambiguous yes or no: This is used when a person cannot make up his mind, or to create an atmosphere in which the person is dependent on the listener, who can then decide the answer she likes.3. Silence: Silence can be used in two senses. First, silence can indicate that two can understand each other without words. Or silence can indicate blocked communication between the two, where one does not want to express or cannot find the proper way to express his intention. Silence is sometimes used to decline requests to persons with whom one is not acquainted. However, since silence does not clearly express one’s feelings, when used between persons in different positions, a superior can interpret it any way she likes, as a yes or a no.4. Counterquestions: Sometimes when a person has to answer in the negative, she puts the focus back on the question, such as by saying, “Why do you ask?”5. Tangential responses: To start talking about a different topic suggests a negative answer. Usually the questioner understands the meaning of this reply to be negative and does not press the issue further, accepting this as a no.6. Exiting (leaving): Occasionally, the person questioned may simply leave without further explanation or comment.7. Lying (equivocation or making an excuse?sickness, previous obligation, etc.): If someone wants to refuse with no specific conventional reasons, such as illness, previous obligation, or work, she may lie to make the refusal seem reasonable. Lying sometimes is taken as truth, which might, in some ways, be effective. Sometimes, the lies are more transparent, but they are accepted since they are used to spare the hearer’s feelings. Research suggests this is the most frequently used form of negation.8. Criticizing the question itself: Criticizing the question itself, saying it is not worth answering, is used only by someone of superior status to the questioner.9. Refusing the question: If a person is in an awkward situation, he may say he must refuse to answer and then go away.10. Conditional no: If someone does not want to accept but is in a “delicate position,” she may say that she will be able to do so conditionally. Or she can say she will do her best, but that if she cannot accomplish the task, she hopes that the other person will understand and appreciate her trying. According to research, this method is not favored because it maintains the expectation of the listener.11. “Yes, but . . .”: The person seems to accept the request but then expresses doubts whether he can fulfill it. The use of “but” expresses the real state of mind, which is that he hesitates or fears to accept the request. This is commonly recognized as meaning no.12. Delaying answers (e.g., “We will write you a letter.”): “I’ll think about it” is commonly used, and can be taken as a negation or for its literal meaning. Its meaning depends on atmosphere, facial expression, tone of voice, and situation.13. Internally yes, externally no: If someone really wants to accept but also has something else to do, she will decline without giving a direct no, using an expression of both apology and regret. While the regret may be sincere, the hearer may merely perceive this as an indirect no and not recognize the speaker’s sincere regret.14. Internally no, externally yes: Even if a person must decline, he sometimes cannot answer directly and may even be forced to accept. This happens when one is asked by a superior. The person asked is pressed to accept but will likely add an excuse as a warning to the listener that he likely will fail to carry out the request.15. Apology: An apology is often used instead of negative words. The apology can be a very humble response suggesting that the speaker is in an inferior position since she cannot meet the other’s expectations. Thus a simple apology can be an effective negative answer.16. Lie (the Japanese equivalent of the English no): This word is primarily used in filling out forms, not in conversation. Japanese speakers avoid using it, as it might disturb the other person immediately on hearing the word before an explanation can be given.REFLECTION AND DISCUSSION1. People from cultures who prefer direct communication methods often think that indirect communication methods are deceitful. Consider how you would respond to a colleague who asks, “Why don’t they just come out and tell the truth?”2. Brainstorm in small groups and develop a list of situations in low-context societies where it is considered acceptable to be indirect (such as a noncommittal response to a friend’s new outfit or silence when a boss proposes a new idea that you have mixed feelings about).
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