The economic impact of human factors in airport operations is a critical area of aviation, it consists of factors such as workforce training, safety protocols, and human error

APA Format Research Paper

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http://www.apa.org/

http://www.apastyle.org

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 57

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 3

The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion:

A Meta-Analytic Review

Persuasive messages are often accompanied by information that induces suspicions of

invalidity. For instance, recipients of communications about a political candidate may discount a

message coming from a representative of the opponent party because they do not perceive the

source of the message as credible (e.g., Lariscy & Tinkham, 1999). Because the source of the

political message serves as a discounting cue and temporarily decreases the impact of the

message, recipients may not be persuaded by the advocacy immediately after they receive the

communication. Over time, however, recipients of an otherwise influential message may recall

the message but not the noncredible source and thus become more persuaded by the message at

that time than they were immediately following the communication. The term sleeper effect was

used to denote such a delayed increase in persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,

noncredible source) becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from the communication in the

memory of the message recipients (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).…[section

Method

Sample of Studies

We retrieved reports related to the sleeper effect that were available by March 2003 by

means of multiple procedures. First, we searched computerized databases, including PsycINFO

(1887–2003), Dissertation Abstracts International (1861–2003), ERIC (1967–2003), and the

Social-Science-Citation-Index (1956–2003), using the keywords sleeper effect, delayed-action,

credibility, source credibility, source expertise, attitude change, discounting cue, attitude

persistence, attitude maintenance, persuasion, propaganda, attitude and memory, attitude and

a delayed increase in persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,

becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from the communication in the

sage recipients (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).…[section

Method

d reports related to the sleeper effect that were available by March 2003 by

rocedures. First, we searched computerized databases, including PsycINFO

rtation Abstracts International (1861–2003), ERIC (1967–77 2003), and the

tion-Index (1956–66 2003), using the keywords sleeper effect,tt delayed-action,

redibility, source expertise, attitude change, discounting cue, attitude

maintenance, persuasion, propaganda, attitude and memoryrr , attitude and

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 4

retention, attitude and decay, and persuasion and decay . Because researchers often use the terms

opinion and belief, instead of attitude , we conducted searches using these substitute terms as

well.

Second, … [section continues].

Selection Criteria

We used the following criteria to select studies for inclusion in the meta-analysis.

1. We only included studies that involved the presentation of a communication containing

persuasive arguments. Thus, we excluded studies in which the participants played a role or were

asked to make a speech that contradicted their opinions. We also excluded developmental studies

involving delayed effects of an early event (e.g., child abuse), which sometimes are also referred

to as sleeper effects .…[section continues] .

Moderators

For descriptive purposes, we recorded (a) the year and (b) source (i.e., journal article,

unpublished dissertations and theses, or other unpublished document) of each report as well as

(c) the sample composition (i.e., high school students, university students, or other) and (d) the

country in which the study was conducted.

We also coded each experiment in terms of .…[section continues].

Studies were coded independently by the first author and another graduate student.

Italicize key terms, 4.21

Description of meta-analysis, 1.02; Guidelines for reporting meta-analysis, 2.10; see also Appendix

Identification of elements in a series within a sentence, 3.04

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (The numbers refer to numbered sec- tions in the Publication Manual. This abridged manuscript illus- trates the organizational structure characteristic of reports of meta-analyses. Of course, a complete meta-analysis would include a title page, an abstract page, and so forth.)

Paper adapted from “The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion: A Meta-Analytic Review,” by G. Kumkale and D. Albarracin, 2004, Psychological Bulletin, 130, pp. 143–172. Copyright 2004 by the American Psychological Association.

S A M P L E P A P E R S58

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 5

was satisfactory (Orwin, 1994). We resolved disagreements by discussion and consultation with

colleagues. Characteristics of the individual studies included in this review are presented in

Table 1. The studies often contained several independent datasets such as different messages and

different experiments. The characteristics that distinguish different datasets within a report

appear on the second column of the table.

Dependent Measures and Computation of Effect Sizes

We calculated effect sizes for (a) persuasion and (b) recall–recognition of the message

content. Calculations were based on the data described in the primary reports as well as available

responses of the authors to requests of further information.…[section continues].

Analyses of Effect Sizes

There are two major models used in meta-analysis: fixed-effects and random-

effects.…[section continues].

To benefit from the strengths of both models, we chose to aggregate the effect sizes and to

conduct analyses using both approaches.…[section continues].

Results

The data analysis included a description of the experiments we summarized, an

estimation of overall effects, moderator analyses, and tests of mediation.

Sample of Studies and Datasets

Descriptive characteristics of the datasets included in the present meta-analysis appear in

Table 2.…[section continues].

Overview of the Average Effect Sizes

A thorough understanding of the sleeper effect requires examining (a) the between-

condition differences at each time point as well as (b) the within-condition changes that take

Analyses of Effect Sizes

wo major models used in meta-aa analysis: fixed-effects and s random-

ontinues].

e strengths of both models, we chose to aggregate the effect sizes and to

ing both approaches.…[section continues].

Results

alysis included a description of the experiments we summarized, an

l effects, moderator analyses, and tests of mediation.

and Datasets

characteristics of the datasets included in the present meta-aa analysis appear in

continues].

verage Effect Sizes

understanding of the sleeper effect requires examining (a) the between-

es at each time point as well as (b) the within-condition changes that take

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 6

place over time.…[section continues].

In light of these requirements, we first examined whether discounting cues led to a decrease in

agreement with the communication (boomerang effect). Next,.…[section continues].

Ruling out a nonpersisting boomerang effect. To determine whether or not a delayed

increase in persuasion represents an absolute sleeper effect, one needs to rule out a nonpersisting

boomerang effect, which takes place when a message initially backfires but later loses this

reverse effect (see Panel A of Figure 1).…[section continues].

Average sleeper effect. Relevant statistics corresponding to average changes in

persuasion from the immediate to the delayed posttest appear in Table 4, organized by the

different conditions we considered (i.e., acceptance-cue, discounting-cue, no-message control,

and message-only control). In Table 4, positive effect sizes indicate increases in persuasion over

time, negative effect sizes indicate decay in persuasion, and zero effects denote stability in

persuasion. Confidence intervals that do not include zero indicate significant changes over time.

The first row of Table 4 shows that recipients of acceptance cues agreed with the message less as

time went by (fixed-effects, d + = –0.21; random-effects, d+ = –0.23). In contrast to the decay in

persuasion for recipients of acceptance cues, there was a slight increase in persuasion for

recipients of discounting cues over time (d+ = 0.08). It is important to note that change in

discounting-cue conditions significantly differed from change in acceptance-cue conditions,

(fixed-effects; B = –0.29, SE = 0.04), QB(1) = 58.15, p < .0001; QE(123) = 193.82, p <

.0001.…[section continues].

Summary and variability of the overall effect. The overall analyses identified a relative

sleeper effect in persuasion, but no absolute sleeper effect. The latter was not surprising, because

the sleeper effect was expected to emerge under specific conditions.…[section continues].

Use at least two subheadings in a section, 3.02

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 59

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 7

Moderator Analyses

Although overall effects have descriptive value, the variability in the change observed in

discounting-cue conditions makes it unlikely that the same effect was present under all

conditions. Therefore, we tested the hypotheses that the sleeper effect would be more likely (e.g.,

more consistent with the absolute pattern in Panel B1 of Figure 1) when…[section continues].

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 8

. . . [references continue]

[Follow the form of the one-experiment sample paper to type the author note, footnotes, tables, and figure captions.]

References

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

Albarracín, D. (2002). Cognition in persuasion: An analysis of information processing in

response to persuasive communications. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental

social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 61–130). doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80004-1

… [references continue]

Johnson, B. T., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Effects of involvement in persuasion: A meta-analysis.

Psychological Bulletin, 106, 290–314. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.290

*Johnson, H. H., Torcivia, J. M., & Poprick, M. A. (1968). Effects of source credibility on the

relationship between authoritarianism and attitude change. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 9, 179–183. doi:10.1037/h0021250

*Johnson, H. H., & Watkins, T. A. (1971). The effects of message repetitions on immediate and

delayed attitude change. Psychonomic Science, 22, 101–103.

Jonas, K., Diehl, M., & Bromer, P. (1997). Effects of attitudinal ambivalence on information

processing and attitude-intention consistency. Journal of Experimental Social

Psychology, 33, 190–210. doi:10.1006/jesp.1996.1317

Format for references included in a meta-analysis with less than 50 references, 6.26

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger

Boston College

Author Note

This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694

awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Boston College.

Author Note

arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694

beth A. Kensinger.

ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]

M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Writing the abstract, 2.04

Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the manuscript for submission, 8.03

Formatting the author name (byline) and institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1

Double-spaced manuscript, Times Roman typeface, 1-inch margins, 8.03

Elements of an author note, 2.03

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2

Abstract

Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task.

Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and

neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with

other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional

images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not

display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.

Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 41

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered sections in the Publication Manual.)

Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger, 2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.

S A M P L E P A P E R S42

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to

attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to

select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous

research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young

adults (e.g.,

& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives

to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan

& Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997; LeDoux, 1995).

For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001)presented participants with 3 × 3 visual

arrays with images representing four categories (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half

the arrays, all nine images were from the same category, whereas in the remaining half of the

arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e.g.,

eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to indicate whether the matrix included a

discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images were more quickly detected than

fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who

were fearful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (including those

not attended to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &

Merikle, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is

not limited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

detected rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson, 2005;

Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin-Loeches, Mecado,

ant stimulus. Results indicated that fearr-rr relevant images were more quickly detected than

elevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who aa

arful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

n-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (includ- ing those

nded to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &

e, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is

ited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

d rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson,(( 2005;55

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4

Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist, Karlsson, & Ohman, 2005;

Nummenmaa et al., 2006).

From this research, it seems clear that younger adults show detection benefits for

arousing information in the environment. It is less clear whether these effects are preserved

across the adult life span. The focus of the current research is on determining the extent to which

aging influences the early, relatively automatic detection of emotional information.

Regions of the brain thought to be important for emotional detection remain relatively

intact with aging (reviewed by Chow & Cummings, 2000).