One of the major themes in this week’s readings and lectures is the disconnect between the religious justification for colonization and the economic incentive underlying colonization. The S

Bernardino de Sahagún, “The Battle for Tenochtitlan”

Ten years before the Spaniards first came here, a frightening omen appeared in the sky. It was like a large glowing blaze. It seemed to pierce the sky itself, very wide at the base and narrow at the top. It extended to the very middle of the sky, to the very heart of the heavens. When it shone in the east in the middle of the night, it burned so bright one could believe it was dawn. The blaze appeared at midnight and burned till the break of day, then it disappeared from view. When the day broke, the sun effaced it. This omen was visible each night for a year, beginning the year 12-House. When it appeared at midnight, everyone shouted and hit their hands against their mouths; they were frightened and asked themselves what it could mean.

The second omen which appeared was that the temple of Huitzilopochtli burst into flames of its own accord and flared greatly. When the fire appeared, the squared, wooden pillars were already in flames; from within them emerged tongues and tassels of flames that speedily consumed all of the building's beams. When the fire appeared, people shouted: "Mexicanos, hasten here, come and extinguish the flames, bring your water jugs!" They came, but when they threw water on the blaze it only exploded more. They could not put it out, and the temple burned to the ground.

The third omen was that a temple was struck by a lightning-bolt. It was only a straw hut, the temple of Xiuhtecuhtli in the place known as Tzumulco. It was believed to be an omen because the sun was shining and it was not raining hard that day, only a drizzle, and no thunder was heard.

The fourth omen was that while the sun was still shining. a comet fell, divided into three parts. It flashed out from the west and raced straight to the east, looking like a shower of sprinkling, glowing coals, and its tail reached a far distance. When the people saw it, there was a great outcry, like the sound of rattles.

The fifth omen was that the water of the lake boiled up; the wind had nothing to do with it. It was as if it were boiling with rage and made exploding sounds and rose high in the air and reached the foundations of the houses until the houses collapsed. This was the great lake [Lake Texcoco] which surrounded us here in Mexico.

The sixth omen was that often a woman was heard weeping and shouting. She cried out loudly at night, saying "Oh, my children, we are about to go." At other times she cried: "Oh my children, where shall I take you?"

The seventh omen came when water people were hunting or snaring and captured an ash-covered bird, like a crane. They went to the Tlillan calmecac to show it to Moctezuma; it was past noon, but still daytime. On top of its head was something like a strange mirror, round, circular, and it appeared to be pierced in the center, where one could see the sky, the stars, and the Firedrill [mamalhuaztli or Caster and Pollux constellation]. Moctezuma took it as a great and evil omen when he saw the stars and the mamalhuaztli. And when he looked at the bird's head

a second time a little further, he saw a crowd of people coming, armed for war on the backs of deer. Then he called for the soothsayers and sages, and asked them: "Do you not know what I have seen? a crowd of people coming." But when they began to answer him, all had vanished, and they could tell him nothing more.

The eighth omen was that monstrous beings appeared, deformed men with two heads but only one body. They took them to the Tlillan calmecac and showed them to Moctezuma; but when he looked at them, they disappeared.

Here it is told about those who first came by boat, which, they say, was a single canoe steward of Cuetlaxtlan went in person [to see the strangers]. [He was accompanied by] the high stewards of Mictlanquauhtla, Yaotzin and of Teuciniyocan, named Teuciniyocan. In fourth place, Cuitlalpitoc, was no more than a guide who walked with the others. In fifth place [was] Téntitl, also more of a guide.

They went to investigate [the strangers]. They went on the pretext of seeking trade. So they went in disguise, to find out about them. They went to trade them mantles, which were richly made with fine threads, [which meant that] they were probably mantles Moctezuma used. No one else might wear them; they were for his exclusive use; they were is very own.

They went by boat in order to see them. As they did so, Pinotl said, "We will not give false news to Moctezuma, for we no longer would live. We will go, even if we die, so he can rightfully hear all [the news] that we bring him. (Moctezuma is the name of he who controls; as ruler of Tlacatecuhtli, [he] is 'lord of all men.'")

At that moment, they went into the water. They jumped in their boats and maneuvered them on the high seas, as the rowers rowed them.

And when they were near the Spaniards, then, in their presence, they kissed the prows of the boats, as they did in ceremonies when they kissed the earth. [For] they had the opinion of the time that our Prince Quetzalcoatl had come.

The Spaniards called them, asked them: "Who are you? From where have you come? Where is your home?"

At that moment they told them, "We have come from México."

Then they asked, "If truly you are Mexicas, what is the name of the ruler of México?"

[They replied], "Our lords, his name is Moctezuma."

Then they gave them a variety of richly made mantles that they had with them: one with a sun, another with blue fringe, another with figured cups, one with eagle down, one with the face of a

snake, one with the wind jewel, one in the color of turkey blood, one with whirlpool designs, and the one with the smoky mirrors. They gave them all these goods, these fine mantles.

[The Spaniards] gave them gifts in return. The Spaniards gave them green and yellow necklaces, which looked like amber. And when they had seen them, much did they marvel.

And the Spaniards addressed them, they told them: "Go! Now we will go to Castile. [But] we will not be long; we will arrive in México."

Then they [the Spaniards] left. Similarly, the others left and turned back. And when they reached dry land, they left immediately for México.

Day and night, they came walking to communicate with Moctezuma, to tell him and to give him the truth that he had to know.

They went bringing the gifts that they had received. And they declared to him: "Oh, our Lord, my son, it puts an end to us! This is what we have seen. This is what we have done. [We went] there where your grandfathers guard the surface of the sea, we went to see our lords, our gods, in the middle of the water. We gave them all of your mantles; here are your gifts; they gave them to us. They said: 'if you truly have come from México, you shall give [these gifts] to the ruler Moctezuma, [for] with these, he shall know us.'"

They told everything to Moctezuma, told him all that [the Spaniards] had said to them in the water.

Then Moctezuma told them: "You have suffered fatigue; you are very tired; rest. We will keep this a secret. No one shall open his lips. No one shall mumble a word; nothing public, nothing from one's lips. Keep it only to yourselves."

. . .

Here it is told what happened when Moctezuma's messengers went aboard the ship of Don Hernán Cortés. Then they climbed up, carrying gifts in their arms. When they got into the ship, each kissed the earth before the Captain.

Having done this, they addressed him, saying:

"Let the god hear [us], for his deputy Moctezuma, who is in charge of the city of México for him, addresses him saying 'the god has suffered, he is weary [from travel].'"

Then they adorned the Captain. They put on him the turquoise mosaic serpent mask attached to a quetzal feather head fan. With it were fixed, hanging from each side, green-stone earplugs in the shape of serpents.

Then they put a sleeveless jacket on him. And they put a necklace [around his neck] of plaited green stone in the middle of which was a golden disk. Next they fastened a mirror to his hips, And also they dressed him in a cape called the tzitzilli.

And on his legs they placed the green stone bands with the golden bells. Also they gave him and placed on his arm, a shield with crosspieces of gold and mother-of-pearl with feather fringes of quetzal [feathers] and a [quetzal] banner. And they laid the obsidian sandals before him.

And the other three sets of adornments, the finery of the gods, they only arranged in rows before him, for him to see.

When this had been done, the Captain said to them: "Is this all? Is this everything you have to welcome [us]? Is this how you greet people?"

They replied: "This is everything with which we have come, our lord."

Then the Captain ordered that they be tied up; they put irons on their feet and necks. When this was done, they fired the large cannon. And the messengers then fainted and swooned. One by one they fainted, they fell to the deck; swaying, they lost consciousness. And the Spaniards lifted and raised them and gave them some wine to drink. Then they gave them food, fed them. With this, they recovered their strength and caught their breath.

When this had been done, The Captain said to them: "Listen, I have known and heard it said that these Mexicas are very strong, are [great] warriors, and conquerors. If there is even one Mexica, he can chase, overpower, conquer, and defeat even ten, even twenty, of his enemies. Now I want to be convinced, to see for myself, to test how strong you are, how manly you are."

Then he gave them leather shields, iron swords, and iron lances. He then said to them: "Very early in the morning, as dawn comes to pass, we will fight each other, we will challenge each other, we will find out who will fall first."

They answered the Captain saying, "Listen, our lord. This is not what Moctezuma ordered us [to do]. All we came to do was to greet and salute you. We were not ordered to do what the lord wants. If we should do that, would not Moctezuma become angry with us? Will not he destroy us for that?"

Then the Captain said: "No, it will be done. I want to see and admire [your prowess], for it is known in Castile, it is said that you are very powerful and valiant. Eat while it is still before dawn, and I will eat then too. Arm yourselves well! Mucho ánimo [Cheers]!"

[Cortés then let them go, and they ran across Mexico to tell Moctezuma what happened.]

Then Moctezuma sent out emissaries. Those he had sent were various evil men–soothsayers and magicians. He also sent warriors, brave men, chieftains.

They had to be responsible for all [that the Spaniards] needed for food: turkeys, eggs, white tortillas, and whatever else they might request, whatever their hearts desired. They were to watch them well.

He sent captives in case (the Spaniards) wanted to [carry out a] sacrifice; who knows if they wanted to drink their blood? And the emissaries did this.

But when they [the Spaniards] saw it [the victims for sacrifice], they were disgusted, they spit, they shut their eyes, they shook their head. And the emissaries sprinkled blood in the food, which made their [the Spaniards'] stomachs turn, and sickened and disgusted them because of the rotten stench of the blood.

Moctezuma did this because he believed they were gods; he worshipped them as gods. For they were called and named "gods come from the heavens." And the black ones were called "soiled gods."

[They then later ate together–presumably without the bloodied food.]

They said that Moctezuma sent the magicians and soothsayers to see what [the Spaniards] were like and perhaps enchant them, cast a spell on them. Perhaps they could blow them away or hurl something at them. Perhaps they could do something to make them sick, or die, or return from where they came. But when they performed their charge and commission upon the Spaniards, they could do nothing; they had no power [at all].

Then they hastened back to the city, to tell Moctezuma what [the strangers were like], how strong they were, [saying]: "We are no match for them: we are as nothing!"

Moctezuma gave rigorous orders; he scolded and commanded the officials and all the chiefs and captains, under the threat of death, to see and take care of everything [the strangers] needed and to provide it.

And when [the Spaniards] left their ships, came on to dry land, and began to march toward here, they were well cared for, they were honored. They were always in the hands of someone as they marched ahead; a lot was done to please them.

. . .

[After the Spaniards attacked Cholula, they continued to advance toward Tenochtitlan. To stop the Spaniards, Moctezuma sent emissaries with gold, hoping Cortés would be satisfied and leave. Instead, the spectacle of the gold led the Spaniards to lust for more of the precious metal. When the gifts failed to halt Cortés' advance, Moctezuma again turned toward sorcerers.]

Chapter 13: Here it is told how Moctezuma sent out other sorcerers so that they might cast a spell on the Spaniards and what happened to them on the way.

Then [he sent] another series of messengers: who were wizards, magicians, and priests. They also went out to meet the strangers. But they could do nothing. They could not blind their eyes; they could not cast a spell on them; they could not dominate them in any way. They could not even meet [the strangers].

For a drunkard tripped them in the road. They encountered him and stopped, were stunned. They believed he was a man from Chalco because he was dressed like a Chalca with eight grass strings tied to his chest; he acted like a Chalca in his manners; like a Chalca [one knows through] fiction. Appearing drunk, he pretended to be drunk, he feigned to be a drunkard.

They encountered him before they [could appear] before the Spaniards. He rushed toward the Mexicas and said: "Why have you come here? What sort of thing do you want? What does Moctezuma want to do? Has he still not come to his head? Is he now unhappy, fearful? He has made mistakes; he has abandoned his vassals and has destroyed men. Some have been beaten and others wrapped in shrouds [for the dead]; some have been betrayed and others mocked and deceived."

And when they had seen this, when they heard his words, they tried in vein to approach him. They hurriedly built him a small temple and an alter and a seat made of grass. But for awhile they could not see him. They worked in vain, they constructed his temple in vain, for he spoke to them only in oracles. He frightened them; he harshly reprehended them, and spoke to them as if from a great distance.

He asked them: "Why in vain have you stopped here? Already, [it is apparent] that México will exist no longer! It is finished forever! Let go of this place! [it exists] here no longer! Turn around! Steer your sight toward México! What is to happen, has already happened!"

Then they came to see, they came to fix their eyes with anxiety. All the temples were burning and the communal houses, and the priestly schools, and all of the houses in México. And everything was as if a battle [had already begun].

And when the sorcerers saw this, they lost all heart. They no longer spoke clearly; it was like they had been made to swallow something. They said: "This is not for us to see; it is [a vision] for Moctezuma, all that we have seen. [For] this was no common being, this was the young Tezcatlipoca . . . !" Unexpectedly, it disappeared; they no longer saw it.

And so the messengers abandoned their encounter [with the Spaniards], no longer did they walk toward them. From there, the sorcerers and the magicians turned back to tell Moctezuma [what they saw]. They came together with those who had gone first, with those [who had earlier] gone with Tzioacpopoca [the messenger who earlier given the Spaniards gold].

And when these messengers arrived, they told Moctezuma how it happened, how they saw it [México in flames]. And when Moctezuma heard it, he [could] only bow his head, he hung his head. He no longer spoke words, but remained crestfallen for a long time. [After] all that was said and in spite of everything, he [finally] responded to them:

"What can we do, my strong ones? What can be done here? We are finished! We are at the mercy of our gods! Is there a mountain we can climb? Can we perhaps escape? We are Mexicas: is it true that glory will be given to the Mexican nation?"

"The poor old men are worthy of compassion and the poor women and the children who [are too young] to reason,. where will they be safe? But, there is no remedy. . . What can we do? Is nothing left? What can we do and where [can we go]? We are at the mercy of our gods . . . What they want, they will get, what they want will come to be . . . . [Whatever they want], we shall be astonished by it."

. . .

Here it is told how the Spaniards killed, they murdered the Mexicas who were celebrating the Fiesta of Huitzilopochtli in the place they called The Patio of the Gods

At this time, when everyone was enjoying the fiesta, when everyone was already dancing, when everyone was already singing, when song was linked to song and the songs roared like waves, in that precise moment the Spaniards determined to kill people. They came into the patio, armed for battle.

They came to close the exits, the steps, the entrances [to the patio]: The Gate of the Eagle in the smallest palace, The Gate of the Canestalk and the Gate of the Snake of Mirrors. And when they had closed them, no one could get out anywhere.

Once they had done this, they entered the Sacred Patio to kill people. They came on foot, carrying swords and wooden and metal shields. Immediately, they surrounded those who danced, then rushed to the place where the drums were played. They attacked the man who was drumming and cut off both his arms. Then they cut off his head [with such a force] that it flew off, falling far away.

At that moment, they then attacked all the people, stabbing them, spearing them, wounding them with their swords. They struck some from behind, who fell instantly to the ground with their entrails hanging out [of their bodies]. They cut off the heads of some and smashed the heads of others into little pieces.

They struck others in the shoulders and tore their arms from their bodies. They struck some in the thighs and some in the calves. They slashed others in the abdomen and their entrails fell to the earth. There were some who even ran in vain, but their bowels spilled as they ran; they

seemed to get their feet entangled with their own entrails. Eager to flee, they found nowhere to go.

Some tried to escape, but the Spaniards murdered them at the gates while they laughed. Others climbed the walls, but they could not save themselves. Others entered the communal house, where they were safe for awhile. Others lay down among the victims and pretended to be dead. But if they stood up again they [the Spaniards] would see them and kill them.

The blood of the warriors ran like water as they ran, forming pools, which widened, as the smell of blood and entrails fouled the air.

And the Spaniards walked everywhere, searching the communal houses to kill those who were hiding. They ran everywhere, they searched every place.

When [people]outside [the Sacred Patio learned of the massacre], shouting began, "Captains, Mexicas, come here quickly! Come here with all arms, spears, and shields! Our captains have been murdered! Our warriors have been slain! Oh Mexica captains, [our warriors] have been annihilated!"

Then a roar was heard, screams, people wailed, as they beat their palms against their lips. Quickly the captains assembled, as if planned in advance, and carried their spears and shields. Then the battle began. [The Mexicas] attacked them with arrows and even javelins, including small javelins used for hunting birds. They furiously hurled their javelins [at the Spaniards]. It was as if a layer of yellow canes spread over the Spaniards.

. . .

Here it is told how, at the time the Spaniards left Mexico, there came an illness of pustules of which many Mexicas died; it was called "the great rash" [smallpox].

[Even] before the Spaniards appeared to us, an illness broke out, a sickness of pustules. It began in Tepeilhuitl, and it spread over the people as a great destruction. Large bumps spread on people; some were entirely covered–on the face, the head, the chest, etc. [The disease] brought great desolation; a great many [people] died from it.

[People] with the illness could not walk, they could only lay in their dwellings and sleeping places. They could not move; they could not stir; they could not change position, nor lie on one side, nor face down, nor on their backs. And when they stirred, they screamed. The pustules that covered people caused great desolation; a great many people died of them, and many just died of hunger; [for] no one took care of others any longer.

On some people, the pustules were widely separated, and they did not suffer greatly, nor did many of them die of it. But many people's faces were marred by it; their faces or noses were pitted. Some lost their eyes; some were blinded.

At this time, the pestilence lasted sixty days, sixty fateful days. It began in Cuatlan, where it became so well established that nothing could stop it, and it spread in the direction of Chalco. And many were disabled or paralyzed by it, but they were not disabled forever. It broke out in Teotleco, and it abated in Panquetzaliztli. The Mexicas were greatly weakened by it.

And after this, the Spaniards came; they marched from Tezcoco. They appeared from the direction of Quauhtitlan and stopped at Tlacopan. There, they gave out assignments and divided themselves. Pedro de Alvarado was made responsible for the road coming to Tlatelolco, and the Marquis [Cortés] went to Coyoacan. Here, he took charge of the Acachinanco [road], which led to Tenochtitlan. The Marquis considered that those of Tenochtitlan were valiant warriors.

And at Nextlatilco, or Iliacac, the war first began. The [the Spaniards] quickly reached Nonoalco, with the [Mexica] warriors pursuing them. None of the Mexicas died; then the Spaniards turned back. The warriors fought in boats; the warboatmen threw darts at [the Spaniards]. Then [the Mexicas] entered [Nonoalco]. Subsequently, the Marquis sent [his soldiers] toward Tenochtitlan, following the Acachinanco [road]. Many times they fought, and the Mexicas confronted him.

. . .

Here it is told how once again the Mexicas took captives–according to the count of the Spaniards, there were fifty-three, as well as many Tlaxcalans and people of Tetzcoco, Chalco, and Xochimilco–and how they sacrificed them before their former gods.

At this point [after a long siege of Tenochtitán], the Mexica warriors threw themselves [into the open] and chased [the Spaniards]; they ambushed them from the passageways, and when the Spaniards saw it [they believed that the Mexicas] seemed drunk. [The Mexicas] then took captives. Many Tlaxcalans, and people of Acolhuacan, Chalco, Xochimilco, etc., were taken. A great many were captured and killed. They forced the Spaniards and all the others to go right into the water.

And the road became very slippery; one could no longer walk on it, but would slip and slide. And the captives were dragged along the trails.

[The chapter then mentions how the Mexicas and their allies captured the Spaniards' standard, but the Spaniards were too worried to care about it.]

Then they took the captives to Yacacolco, hurrying them along, keeping them together. Some went weeping, some went singing, some went shouting while clapping their hands against their mouths. When they got them to Yacacolco, they lined them up in rows, in files. One by one they proceeded to the small pyramid where they were slain. The Spaniards went first, going in the lead; the people of all the different [allied] cities just followed. And when the sacrifice was over, they chopped off the heads of the Spaniards. They strung the Spaniards heads on poles [on the

skull rack]; they also strung up the heads of the horses, arranging them below, while the heads of the Spaniards were above. They placed them so they faced east toward the rising sun. But they did not string up the heads of all of those from the allied towns, nor did they string up the heads from those who had come from far away. There were fifty-three Spaniards they captured and four horses.

Nevertheless, [the Mexicas] kept watch everywhere, and there was fighting. [In spite of their success in capturing the Spaniards], they kept watch everywhere. The people of Xochimilco went about in boats surrounding us on all sides. On both sides captives were taken; on both sides there was killing.

And all the common people suffered from hunger; many died of hunger. They no longer drank good, pure water, but the water they drank was salty. Many people died of it, and because of it many got dysentery and died. Everything was eaten–lizards and swallows; and maize straw, and grass that grows on salt flats. And they ate colorin wood; they chewed on glue flowers, plaster, leather, and deerskin, which they roasted, baked, and toasted so that they could eat them, and they ate rough herbs and even mud [bricks].There had never been such suffering. It was terrifying how it is to be besieged, and great numbers died of hunger. And little by little they [the enemy] pressed us back against the wall; hemmed us in and contained us.

. . .

Here it is told how the men of Tlatilulco and Tenochtitlan surrendered to the Spaniards and what happened when they were among them.

And when they had gotten him [Cuauhtémoc] there and when he was on land, all the Spaniards came to see. They came to take him. The Spaniards grasped him by the hand, took him up to the roof and put him in front of the Captain [Cortés], the war leader. And when they had proceeded to stand him before [Cortés], they looked at Cuauhtémoc, stroked his hair, then seated him next to the Captain.

[Then] they fired the cannons; they hit no one, but they aimed over the [common] people, the [shots] just went over the heads of the Indians. Then they brought out a cannon, put it in a boat, and took it to the home of Coyohuehuetzin. When they arrived, they took it up on the roof. Then again they killed people, many died there. But [the Mexicas] only fled, and the war came to an end.

Then there was shouting; they said: "It is enough! Let everyone leave! Eat greens!" And when they heard this, the people left; they went into the water. But when they went out by the roads, again they [the Mexicas] killed some people, which made the Spaniards angry.

A few of them carried their shields and obsidian-bladed swords. Those who lived in houses went straight to Amaxac, where the road forks. There, the people divided, some going toward

Tepeyacac, some toward Xoxohuiltitlan, some toward Nonoalco. But no one went toward Xoloco and Mazatzintamalco.

And all who lived in boats and on platforms [in the water] and those at Tolmayecan went into the water. The water came to the stomachs of some, to the chests of others, to the necks of others, and some sank entirely into the deep water.

The little children were carried on people's backs. Weeping was everywhere, but some rejoiced and amused themselves as they went along the road. And those who owned boats, all boatmen, left by night; though some left by day. They seemed to knock against one another [as they fled].

For their part, the Spaniards along every stretch of the road robbed people. They looked for gold; they cared nothing for green-stone [jade?], quetzal feathers, or turquoise. [They looked for it everywhere]–in poor women's bosoms, in their skirts; in the breech cloths of men, and in their mouths.

And [the Spaniards] seized and picked out beautiful women–those with light bodies, the fair [skinned] ones. And some women, when they were [to be] raped, covered their faces with mud and put on old blouses and skirts, clothing themselves in rags.

And also some men were singled out–those who were strong, grown to manhood, and next the young boys. [They] would become their messengers, their servants, their runners. On some they branded their cheeks. On some they marked the cheek or mouth.

And when the shield was laid down, when we collapsed, it was the year count Three House and the day count was One Serpent.

[PREFACE]

The Americas were discovered in 1492, and the first Christian

settlements established by the Spanish the following year. It is

accordingly forty-nine years now since Spaniards began arriving

in numbers in this part of the world.8 They first settled the large

and fertile island of Hispaniola, which boasts six hundred leagues

of coastline and is surrounded by a great many other large

islands, all of them, as I saw for myself, with as high a native

population as anywhere on earth.9 Of the coast of the mainland,

which, at its nearest point, is a little over two