After reading different theories of leadership in

siTuaTionaL Leadership

Instructions: Look at the following four leadership situations and indicate what the development level is in each situ- ation, which leadership style each response represents, and which leadership style is needed in the situation (i.e., action A, B, C, or D).

Situation 1

Because of budget restrictions imposed on your department, it is necessary to consolidate. You are thinking of asking a highly capable and experienced member of your department to take charge of the consolidation. This person has worked in all areas of your department and has the trust and respect of most of the staff. She is very willing to help with the consolidation.

A. Assign the project to her and let her determine how to accomplish it.

B. Assign the task to her, indicate to her precisely what must be done, and supervise her work closely.

C. Assign the task to her and provide support and encouragement as needed.

D. Assign the task to her and indicate to her precisely what needs to be done but make sure you incorporate her suggestions.

Development level ____________ Action ____________

Situation 2

You have recently been made a department head of the new regional office. In getting to know your departmen- tal staff, you have noticed that one of your inexperienced employees is not following through on assigned tasks. She is enthusiastic about her new job and wants to get ahead in the organization.

A. Discuss the lack of follow-through with her and explore the alternative ways this problem can be solved.

B. Specify what she must do to complete the tasks but incorporate any suggestions she may have.

C. Define the steps necessary for her to complete the assigned tasks and monitor her performance frequently.

D. Let her know about the lack of follow-through and give her more time to improve her performance.

Development level ____________ Action ___________

Situation 3

Because of a new and very important unit project, for the past 3 months you have made sure that your staff members understood their responsibilities and expected level of performance, and you have supervised them closely. Due to some recent project setbacks, your staff has become somewhat discouraged. Their morale has dropped, and so has their performance.

A. Continue to direct and closely supervise their performance.

B. Give the group members more time to overcome the setbacks but occasionally check their progress.

C. Continue to define group activities but involve the group members more in decision making and incorporate their ideas.

D. Participate in their problem-solving activities and encourage and support their efforts to overcome the project setbacks.

Development level ____________ Action ____________

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Situation 4

As a director of the sales department, you have asked a member of your staff to take charge of a new sales cam- paign. You have worked with this person on other sales campaigns, and you know he has the job knowledge and experience to be successful at new assignments. However, he seems a little unsure about his ability to do the job.

A. Assign the new sales campaign to him and let him function on his own.

B. Set goals and objectives for this new assignment but consider his suggestions and involve him in decision making.

C. Listen to his concerns but assure him he can do the job and support his efforts.

D. Tell him exactly what the new campaign involves and what you expect of him, and supervise his performance closely.

Development level ____________ Action ____________

SOURCE: Adapted from Game Plan for Leadership and the One Minute Manager (Figure 5.20, Learning Activity, p. 5), by K. Blanchard, P. Zigarmi, and D. Zigarmi, 1992, Escondido, CA: Blanchard Training and Development (phone 760-489-5005). Used with permission.

Scoring Interpretation

A short discussion of the correct answers to the Brief Questionnaire will help to explain the nature of situational leadership questionnaires.

Situation 1 in the Brief Questionnaire describes a common problem faced by organizations during downsizing: the need to consolidate. In this particular situation, the leader has identified a person to direct the downsizing project who appears to be highly competent, experienced, and motivated. According to the SLII model, this person is at Developmental Level 4, which calls for a delegative approach. Of the four response alternatives, it is the (A) response, “Assign the project to her and let her determine how to accomplish it,” that best represents delegating (S4): low supportive–low directive leadership.

Situation 2 describes a problem familiar to leaders at all levels in nearly all organizations: lack of follow-through by an enthusiastic employee. In the given example, the employee falls in Developmental Level 1 because she lacks the experience to do the job even though she is highly motivated to succeed. The SLII approach prescribes directing (S1) leadership for this type of employee. She needs to be told when and how to do her specific job. After she is given directions, her performance should be supervised closely. The correct response is (C), “Define the steps necessary to complete the assigned tasks and monitor her performance frequently.”

Situation 3 describes a very different circumstance. In this situation, the employees seem to have developed some experience and an understanding of what is required of them, but they have lost some of their motivation to com- plete the task. Their performance and commitment have stalled because of recent setbacks, even though the leader has been directing them closely. According to SLII, the correct response for the leader is to shift to a more support- ive coaching style (S2) of leadership. The action response that reflects coaching is (C), “Continue to define group activities but involve the group members more in decision making and incorporate their ideas.”

Situation 4 describes some of the concerns that arise for a director attempting to identify the correct person to head a new sales campaign. The person identified for the position obviously has the skills necessary to do a good job with the new sales campaign, but he appears apprehensive about his own abilities. In this context, SLII suggests that the director should use a supportive style (S3), which is consistent with leading employees who are competent but lacking a certain degree of confidence. A supportive style is represented by action response (C), “Listen to his concerns but assure him he can do the job and support his efforts.”

Now select two employees. Diagnose their current development level on three different tasks and your style of leadership in each situation. Is there a match? If not, what specifically can you do for them as a leader to ensure that they have what they need to succeed?

©2010 SAGE Publications. Not for resale, copying or redistribution without permission of the publisher.

LMX 7 QuesTionnaire*

Instructions: This questionnaire contains items that ask you to describe your relationship with either your leader or one of your subordinates. For each of the items, indicate the degree to which you think the item is true for you by circling one of the responses that appear below the item.

1. Do you know where you stand with your leader (follower) . . . [and] do you usually know how satisfied your leader (follower) is with what you do? Rarely Occasionally Sometimes Fairly often Very often

1 2 3 4 5

2. How well does your leader (follower) understand your job problems and needs? Not a bit A little A fair amount Quite a bit A great deal

1 2 3 4 5

3. How well does your leader (follower) recognize your potential? Not at all A little Moderately Mostly Fully

1 2 3 4 5

4. Regardless of how much formal authority your leader (follower) has built into his or her position, what are the chances that your leader (follower) would use his or her power to help you solve problems in your work? None Small Moderate High Very high

1 2 3 4 5

5. Again, regardless of the amount of formal authority your leader (follower) has, what are the chances that he or she would “bail you out” at his or her expense? None Small Moderate High Very high

1 2 3 4 5

6. I have enough confidence in my leader (follower) that I would defend and justify his or her decision if he or she were not present to do so. Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

1 2 3 4 5

7. How would you characterize your working relationship with your leader (follower)?

Extremely ineffective Worse than average Average Better than average Extremely effective

1 2 3 4 5

By completing the LMX 7, you can gain a fuller understanding of how LMX theory works. The score you obtain on the questionnaire reflects the quality of your leader–member relationships, and indicates the degree to which your relationships are characteristic of partnerships, as described in the LMX model.

You can complete the questionnaire both as a leader and as a subordinate. In the leader role, you would complete the questionnaire multiple times, assessing the quality of the relationships you have with each of your subordinates. In the subordinate role, you would complete the questionnaire based on the leaders to whom you report.

Scoring Interpretation

Although the LMX 7 is most commonly used by researchers to explore theoretical questions, you can also use it to analyze your own leadership style. You can interpret your LMX 7 scores using the following guidelines: very high = 30–35, high = 25–29, moderate = 20–24, low = 15–19, and very low = 7–14. Scores in the upper ranges indicate stronger, higher-quality leader–member exchanges (e.g., in-group members), whereas scores in the lower ranges indicate exchanges of lesser quality (e.g., out-group members).

SOURCE: *Reprinted from “Relationship-Based Approach to Leadership: Development of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership Over 25 Years: Applying a Multi-Level, Multi-Domain Perspective,” by G. B. Graen and M. Uhl-Bien, 1995, Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. Copyright © 1995. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier Science.

©2010 SAGE Publications. Not for resale, copying or redistribution without permission of the publisher.

paTh–GoaL Leadership QuesTionnaire*

Instructions: This questionnaire contains questions about different styles of path–goal leadership. Indicate how often each statement is true of your own behavior.

Key: 1 = never 2 = hardly ever 3 = seldom 4 = occasionally 5 = often 6 = usually 7 = always

1. I let subordinates know what is expected of them. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I maintain a friendly working relationship with subordinates. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. I consult with subordinates when facing a problem. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. I listen receptively to subordinates’ ideas and suggestions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I inform subordinates about what needs to be done and how it needs to be done. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. I let subordinates know that I expect them to perform at their highest level. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. I act without consulting my subordinates. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. I do little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the group. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. I ask subordinates to follow standard rules and regulations. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. I set goals for subordinates’ performance that are quite challenging. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. I say things that hurt subordinates’ personal feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. I ask for suggestions from subordinates concerning how to carry out assignments. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. I encourage continual improvement in subordinates’ performance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. I explain the level of performance that is expected of subordinates. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. I help subordinates overcome problems that stop them from carrying out their tasks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. I show that I have doubts about subordinates’ ability to meet most objectives. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. I ask subordinates for suggestions on what assignments should be made. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. I give vague explanations of what is expected of subordinates on the job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. I consistently set challenging goals for subordinates to attain. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. I behave in a manner that is thoughtful of subordinates’ personal needs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scoring 1. Reverse the scores for Items 7, 11, 16, and 18. 2. Directive style: Sum of scores on Items 1, 5, 9, 14, and 18. 3. Supportive style: Sum of scores on Items 2, 8, 11, 15, and 20. 4. Participative style: Sum of scores on Items 3, 4, 7, 12, and 17. 5. Achievement-oriented style: Sum of scores on Items 6, 10, 13, 16, and 19.

Scoring Interpretation · Directive style: A common score is 23, scores above 28 are considered high, and scores below 18 are consid-

ered low. · Supportive style: A common score is 28, scores above 33 are considered high, and scores below 23 are con-

sidered low. · Participative style: A common score is 21, scores above 26 are considered high, and scores below 16 are con-

sidered low. · Achievement-oriented style: A common score is 19, scores above 24 are considered high, and scores below 14

are considered low.

The scores you received on the path–goal questionnaire provide information about which style of leadership you use most often and which you use less often. In addition, you can use these scores to assess your use of each style relative to your use of the other styles.

SOURCES: *Adapted from A Path–Goal Theory Investigation of Superior Subordinate Relationships, by J. Indvik, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1985; and Indvik (1988). Based on the work of House and Dessler (1974) and House (1977) cited in Fulk and Wendler (1982). Used by permission.

©2010 SAGE Publications. Not for resale, copying or redistribution without permission of the publisher.

Leadership seventh edition

To Laurel, Lisa, Madison, Scott, and Kallie

Leadership Theory and practice • seventh edition

Peter g.Northouse Western Michigan University

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Copyright  2016 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Northouse, Peter Guy.

Leadershop : theory and practice/Peter Northouse, Western Michigan University.—Seventh Edition.

pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4833-1753-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)

1. Leadership. 2. Leadership—Case studies. I. Title.

HM1261.N67 2015 303.3′4—dc23 2014044695 This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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Brief Contents

Preface xvii

1. Introduction 1 2. Trait Approach 19 3. Skills Approach 43 4. Behavioral Approach 71 5. Situational Approach 93 6. Path–Goal Theory 115 7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory 137 8. Transformational Leadership 161 9. Authentic Leadership 195 10. Servant Leadership 225 11. Adaptive Leadership 257 12. Psychodynamic Approach 295 13. Leadership Ethics 329 14. Team Leadership 363 15. Gender and Leadership 397 16. Culture and Leadership 427

Author Index 467 Subject index 477 About the Author 491 About the Contributors 493

Detailed Contents

Preface xvii

1. Introduction 1 Leadership Defined 2

Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership 5 Definition and Components 6

Leadership Described 7 Trait Versus Process Leadership 7 Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership 8 Leadership and Power 10 Leadership and Coercion 12 Leadership and Management 13

Plan of the Book 15 Summary 16 References 17

2. Trait Approach 19 Description 19

Intelligence 23 Self-Confidence 24 Determination 24 Integrity 25 Sociability 26 Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership 26 Emotional Intelligence 27

How Does the Trait Approach Work? 29 Strengths 30 Criticisms 30

Application 32 Case Studies 32

Case 2.1 Choosing a New Director of Research 33 Case 2.2 A Remarkable Turnaround 34 Case 2.3 Recruiting for the Bank 36

Leadership Instrument 37 Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ) 38

Summary 40 References 41

3. Skills Approach 43 Description 43

Three-Skill Approach 44 Technical Skill 44 Human Skill 44 Conceptual Skill 45 Summary of the Three-Skill Approach 46

Skills Model 47 Competencies 48 Individual Attributes 52 Leadership Outcomes 53 Career Experiences 54 Environmental Influences 55 Summary of the Skills Model 56

How Does the Skills Approach Work? 56 Strengths 57 Criticisms 58 Application 59 Case Studies 60

Case 3.1 A Strained Research Team 60 Case 3.2 A Shift for Lieutenant Colonel Adams 62 Case 3.3 Andy’s Recipe 64

Leadership Instrument 66 Skills Inventory 67

Summary 69 References 70

4. Behavioral Approach 71 Description 71

The Ohio State Studies 72 The University of Michigan Studies 73 Blake and Mouton’s Managerial (Leadership) Grid 74

Authority–Compliance (9,1) 75

Country-Club Management (1,9) 75 Impoverished Management (1,1) 75 Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5) 76 Team Management (9,9) 77

Paternalism/Maternalism 77 Opportunism 77

How Does the Behavioral Approach Work? 78 Strengths 80 Criticisms 81 Application 81 Case Studies 82

Case 4.1 A Drill Sergeant at First 83 Case 4.2 Eating Lunch Standing Up 84 Case 4.3 We Are Family 85

Leadership Instrument 87 Leadership Behavior Questionnaire 88

Summary 90 References 91

5. Situational Approach 93 Description 93

Leadership Styles 94 Development Levels 96

How Does the Situational Approach Work? 97 Strengths 98 Criticisms 99 Application 102 Case Studies 103

Case 5.1 Marathon Runners at Different Levels 103 Case 5.2 Why Aren’t They Listening? 105 Case 5.3 Getting the Message Across 107

Leadership Instrument 108 Situational Leadership Questionnaire: Sample Items 109

Summary 112 References 113

6. Path–Goal Theory 115 Description 115

Leader Behaviors 117 Directive Leadership 117 Supportive Leadership 117 Participative Leadership 118 Achievement-Oriented Leadership 118

Follower Characteristics 118 Task Characteristics 119

How Does Path–Goal Theory Work? 120 Strengths 122 Criticisms 123 Application 124 Case Studies 125

Case 6.1 Three Shifts, Three Supervisors 126 Case 6.2 Direction for Some, Support for Others 128 Case 6.3 Playing in the Orchestra 129

Leadership Instrument 132 Path–Goal Leadership Questionnaire 133

Summary 135 References 136

7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory 137 Description 137

Early Studies 137 Later Studies 140 Leadership Making 142

How Does LMX Theory Work? 144 Strengths 145 Criticisms 146 Application 148 Case Studies 149

Case 7.1 His Team Gets the Best Assignments 150 Case 7.2 Working Hard at Being Fair 151 Case 7.3 Taking on Additional Responsibilities 152

Leadership Instrument 154 LMX 7 Questionnaire 155

Summary 157 References 158

8. Transformational Leadership 161 Description 161

Transformational Leadership Defined 162 Transformational Leadership and Charisma 164 A Model of Transformational Leadership 166

Transformational Leadership Factors 167 Transactional Leadership Factors 171 Nonleadership Factor 172

Other Transformational Perspectives 172 Bennis and Nanus 172 Kouzes and Posner 174

How Does the Transformational Approach Work? 175 Strengths 176 Criticisms 178 Application 180 Case Studies 181

Case 8.1 The Vision Failed 181 Case 8.2 An Exploration in Leadership 183 Case 8.3 Her Vision of a Model Research Center 185

Leadership Instrument 187 Summary 190 References 191

9. Authentic Leadership 195 Description 195

Authentic Leadership Defined 196 Approaches to Authentic Leadership 197

Practical Approach 197 Theoretical Approach 200

How Does Authentic Leadership Work? 205 Strengths 206 Criticisms 207 Applications 208 Case Studies 209

Case 9.1 Am I Really a Leader? 210 Case 9.2 A Leader Under Fire 212 Case 9.3 The Reluctant First Lady 214

Leadership Instrument 217 Authentic Leadership Self-Assessment Questionnaire 218

Summary 220 References 221

10. Servant Leadership 225 Description 225

Servant Leadership Defined 226 Historical Basis of Servant Leadership 226 Ten Characteristics of a Servant Leader 227 Building a Theory About Servant Leadership 229

Model of Servant Leadership 231 Antecedent Conditions 231 Servant Leader Behaviors 233 Outcomes 236 Summary of the Model of Servant Leadership 238

How Does Servant Leadership Work? 238 Strengths 239

Criticisms 240 Application 241 Case Studies 242

Case 10.1 Everyone Loves Mrs. Noble 243 Case 10.2 Doctor to the Poor 244 Case 10.3 Servant Leadership Takes Flight 247

Leadership Instrument 249 Servant Leadership Questionnaire 250

Summary 253 References 254

11. Adaptive Leadership 257 Description 257

Adaptive Leadership Defined 258 A Model of Adaptive Leadership 260

Situational Challenges 261 Leader Behaviors 263 Adaptive Work 273

How Does Adaptive Leadership Work? 274 Strengths 275 Criticisms 276 Application 277 Case Studies 279

Case 11.1 Silence, Stigma, and Mental Illness 279

Case 11.2 Taming Bacchus 281 Case 11.3 Redskins No More 283

Leadership Instrument 286 Adaptive Leadership Questionnaire 287

Summary 292 References 293

12. Psychodynamic Approach 295 Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries and Alicia Cheak Description 295 The Clinical Paradigm 296 History of the Psychodynamic Approach 297 Key Concepts and Dynamics Within the

Psychodynamic Approach 301 1. Focus on the Inner Theatre 301 2. Focus on the Leader-Follower

Relationships 302 3. Focus on the Shadow Side of Leadership 305

How Does the Psychodynamic Approach Work? 305 Strengths 306

Criticisms 307 Application 308

Group Coaching 309 Case Studies 313

Case 12.1 Dealing With Passive-Aggressives 313 Case 12.2 The Fear of Success 314 Case 12.3 Helping a Bipolar Leader 315

Leadership Instrument 317 The Leadership Archetype

Questionnaire (Abridged Version) 318 Summary 324 References 324

13. Leadership Ethics 329 Description 329

Ethics Defined 330 Level 1. Preconventional Morality 331 Level 2. Conventional Morality 332 Level 3. Postconventional Morality 332

Ethical Theories 333 Centrality of Ethics to Leadership 336 Heifetz’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership 337 Burns’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership 338 The Dark Side of Leadership 339 Principles of Ethical Leadership 341

Ethical Leaders Respect Others 341 Ethical Leaders Serve Others 342 Ethical Leaders Are Just 344 Ethical Leaders Are Honest 345 Ethical Leaders Build Community 346

Strengths 347 Criticisms 348 Application 349 Case Studies 349

Case 13.1 Choosing a Research Assistant 350 Case 13.2 How Safe Is Safe? 351 Case 13.3 Reexamining a Proposal 352

Leadership Instrument 355 Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS) 356

Summary 359 References 360

14. Team Leadership 363 Susan E. Kogler Hill Description 363

Team Leadership Model 366 Team Effectiveness 367 Leadership Decisions 372 Leadership Actions 377

How Does the Team Leadership Model Work? 381 Strengths 382 Criticisms 383 Application 384 Case Studies 385

Case 14.1 Can This Virtual Team Work? 385 Case 14.2 They Dominated the Conversation 386 Case 14.3 Starts With a Bang, Ends With a Whimper 387

Leadership Instrument 389 Team Excellence and Collaborative

Team Leader Questionnaire 391 Summary 393 References 393

15. Gender and Leadership 397 Crystal L. Hoyt and Stefanie Simon Description 397

The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth 398 Evidence of the Leadership Labyrinth 398 Understanding the Labyrinth 399

Gender Differences in Leadership Styles and Effectiveness 401

Navigating the Labyrinth 406 Strengths 409 Criticisms 410 Application 411 Case Studies 411

Case 15.1 The “Glass Ceiling” 412 Case 15.2 Lack of Inclusion and Credibility 413 Case 15.3 Pregnancy as a Barrier to Job Status 414

Leadership Instrument 415 The Gender–Leader Implicit Association Test 416

Summary 419 References 420

16. Culture and Leadership 427 Description 427

Culture Defined 428 Related Concepts 428

Ethnocentrism 428 Prejudice 429

Dimensions of Culture 430 Uncertainty Avoidance 431 Power Distance 432 Institutional Collectivism 432 In-Group Collectivism 432 Gender Egalitarianism 433 Assertiveness 433 Future Orientation 433 Performance Orientation 434 Humane Orientation 434

Clusters of World Cultures 434 Characteristics of Clusters 436

Anglo 437 Confucian Asia 437 Eastern Europe 437 Germanic Europe 437 Latin America 438 Latin Europe 438 Middle East 438 Nordic Europe 439 Southern Asia 439 Sub-Saharan Africa 439

Leadership Behavior and Culture Clusters 439 Eastern Europe Leadership Profile 441 Latin America Leadership Profile 441 Latin Europe Leadership Profile 441 Confucian Asia Leadership Profile 443 Nordic Europe Leadership Profile 443 Anglo Leadership Profile 444 Sub-Saharan Africa Leadership Profile